<p>Naranjo is a Pre-Columbian Maya city in the Petén Basin region of Guatemala. It was occupied from about 500 B.C. to 950 A.D, with its height in the Late Classic Period. The site is part of Yaxha-Nakum-Naranjo National Park. The city lies along the Mopan and Holmul rivers, and is about 50 km east of the site of Tikal. Naranjo has been the victim of severe looting. The site is known for its polychrome ceramic style</p><br>
<p>"Naranjo" in Spanish means "Orange Tree." The emblem glyph of the Naranjo is transliterated as Saaal “the place where (maize) gruel abounds.” The Naranjo dynastic rulers are said to be the "Holy Lords of Saaal."</p><br>
<h2>Layout of Site</h2><br>
<p>The area of Naranjo covers at least 8 km² with the urban center covering about 2.25 km². There are currently 389 recorded buildings in the central area and over 900 around the center.</p><br>
<p>The epicenter consists of six triadic complexes, two ballcourts, two palace compounds, and one E-group. C-9 is the largest triadic complex in the city. Structure C-9 is the complexes main pyramid, and the Largest at the site. Because it occupies the top of a natural hill with a cave located inside, it is a perfect place to be categorized as a ‘sacred mountain’.</p><br>
<p>A hieroglyphic stairway, that is believed to have been taken from Caracol, was added to structure B-18 sometime in the seventh century AD.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological Preservation Work</h2><br>
<p>The site was first mapped and photographed by Teoberto Maler in 1905, who was sent by The Peabody Museum of Harvard University. In 1908 Maler excavated the hieroglyphic stairway from structure B-18, parts of which are now housed in the British Museum in London. In the 1910s, further investigations of the site were made by Sylvanus G. Morley and Oliver Ricketson.</p><br>
<p>Investigations of the site of Xunantunich suggests that it was part of Naranjo&#39;s realm.</p><br>
<p>By the 1920s, many of the ancient sculptures had already disappeared. The problem worsened in the 1960s, when many of the site&#39;s large sculptures were smashed into fragments by looters in order to sneak them out of the country.</p><br>
<p>In 1972-1973, 19 stela were taken from Naranjo by the Department of Prehispanic Monuments of the IDAEH to be protected from looters.</p><br>
<p>From 1997 to 2001 the site was controlled by looters. From 2002 to 2004, a project was undertaken to evaluate the extent of the looting which found about 270 tunnels and trenches. Archaeologist Vilma Fialko has been instrumental in this project.</p><br>
<p>A conservation project by the Ministry of Culture and Sport began in 2002. In 2006 Naranjo was added to the World Monuments Watch.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, a building from about 600 AD was found at nearby Holmul with a giant stucco frieze showing a central ruler and two flanking ones in repose. The frieze is very well preserved. Below it runs a long inscription from which it appears that the construction was commissioned by Aj Wosal of Naranjo. At the time, Naranjo was subordinated to the Kaanul dynasty of Dzibanche and Calakmul.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The history of Naranjo includes several major disturbances in the dynastic rule when allegiances and identities of local kings were subject to change. Texts at the site record a mythical founding of the city by its patron god.</p><br>
<p>Not much is known about the site before the ruler Aj Wosal who came to power in 546 AD. The sites of La Sufricaya and Holmul to the north of Naranjo were involved in the establishment of the new political order in Peten after the arrival of Siyaj K’ahk in AD 378. It is plausible to assume that Naranjo might also be under the sway of Siyaj Kahk&#39;s hegemony and later Tikal rulers. If there were any monuments from that time, they were destroyed and/or cached.</p><br>
<p>In 546 AD Naranjo came under the control of Calakmul whose ruler Tuun Kab Hix appointed Aj Wosal. This was a deliberate move by Calakmul to take allies away from Tikal. In 626 two attacks were made on Naranjo by Caracol. Naranjo was then retaken by Calakmul in 631. Naranjo defeated Caracol in 680 AD in a "star war" sending Caracol into a hiatus period.</p><br>
<p>In 682 AD, Calakmul sent Lady Six Sky, also known as Wak Chanil, to reestablish the Naranjo dynasty. Her arrival is written on stela 24 found in front of Structure C-7. Lady Six Sky was the daughter of the Dos Pilas ruler Balaj Chan Kawiil. While never officially made a ruler, Lady Six Sky performed as a ruler, possibly as regent for her son Kak Tiliw Chan Chaak who acceded in 693 AD at the age of five, although no known inscription explicitly establishes this relationship. Between 693 and 698 AD Naranjo carried out a series of at least eight attacks, likely under the rule of Lady Six Sky, defeating Tikal in 695 AD and Ucanal in 698 AD. Kak Tiliw Chan Chaak began another series of attacks in 706 AD including the defeat of Yaxha in 710 AD. Lady Six Sky died in 741 AD, she is depicted on stelas 3, 18, 24, 29, and 31.</p><br>
<p>Naranjo was defeated by Tikal in 744 AD and the ruler, Yax Mayuy Chan Chaak was taken captive and likely sacrificed during Tikal&#39;s victory celebrations.</p><br>
<p>Naranjo&#39;s downfall may have been the result of political turmoil and a severe drought dated to 810 AD.</p><br>
<h2>Known rulers</h2><br>
<p>The Allen County Courthouse in Fort Wayne, Indiana is one of 37 United States National Historic Landmarks in the state of Indiana. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976 and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2003.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Designed by Brentwood S. Tolan, construction began in 1897, the cornerstone was laid November 17, 1897. The building was dedicated September 23, 1902, with a final cost of $817,553.59. On September 23, 2002, the building was re-dedicated on its centennial after a seven-year restoration effort, which cost $8.6 million.</p><br>
<h2>Architectural details</h2><br>
<p>The Beaux-Arts architecture-style structure includes such features as four 25 by 45 ft murals by Charles Holloway, twenty-eight different kinds of scagiola covering 15,000 ft&sup2, bas-reliefs and art glass. Each of the five court rooms has its own color scheme.</p><br>
<p>Atop the building is a 255 ft-high copper-clad domed rotunda, itself topped by a 14 ft statue wind vane of Lady Liberty. The larger than life statue has feet that would wear a woman&#39;s shoe size of 28.</p><br>
<p>The building materials include Bedford Limestone and Vermont granite with Italian marble details. A tunnel was constructed to connect the Courthouse with the City-County Building located across the street. The Courthouse also houses a fallout shelter underground. The skylights originally built into the building were covered during World War II and replaced with artificial light.</p><br>
<p>The 2001 National Historic Landmark Nomination says in its opening paragraph: "An elaborate combination of Greek, Roman, and Renaissance influences, the massive courthouse reflects the exuberant ambition of late nineteenth century America."</p><br>
<p>Ellora , in Maharashtra, India, is one of the largest rock-cut monastery-temple cave complexes in the world, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, featuring Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments, and artwork, dating from the 600-1000 CE period. Cave 16, in particular, features the largest single monolithic rock excavation in the world, the Kailasha temple, a chariot shaped monument dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasha temple excavation also features the gods, goddesses, and mythologies found in Vaishnavism, Shaktism as well as relief panels summarizing the two major Hindu Epics.</p><br>
<p>There are over 100 caves at the site, all excavated from the basalt cliffs in the Charanandri Hills, 34 of which are open to public.</p><br>
<p>Although the caves served as monasteries, temples and a rest stop for pilgrims, its location on an ancient South Asian trade route also made it an important commercial centre in the Deccan region. It is 29 km north-west of Aurangabad, and about 300 km east-northeast of Mumbai. Today, the Ellora Caves, along with the nearby Ajanta Caves, are a major tourist attraction in the Marathwada region of Maharashtra and a protected monument under the Archaeological Survey of India.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Ellora, also called Verul or Elura, is the short form of the ancient name Elapura. The older form of the name has been found in ancient references such as the Baroda inscription of 812 CE which mentions "the greatness of this edifice" and that "this great edifice was built on a hill by Krishnaraja at Elapura". The edifice in the inscription being the Kailasa temple (Cave 16). In the Indian tradition, each cave is named and has a suffix Guha (Sanskrit), Lena or Leni (Marathi), meaning cave.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The Ellora caves are located in the Indian state of Maharashtra about 29 km northwest from the city of Aurangabad, 300 km east-northeast from Mumbai, and about 100 km west from the Ajanta Caves.</p><br>
<p>Ellora occupies a relatively flat rocky region of the Western Ghats, where ancient volcanic activity in this area had created multilayered basalt formations, known as the Deccan Traps. The volcanic activity that formed the west-facing cliff, which houses the Ellora caves, occurred during the Cretaceous period. The resulting vertical face made access to many layers of rock formations easier, enabling architects to pick basalt with finer grains for more detailed sculpting.</p><br>
<h2>Chronology</h2><br>
<p>The construction at Ellora has been studied since British colonial rule. However, the overlapping styles between the Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina caves has made it difficult to establish agreement concerning the chronology of their construction. The disputes generally concern: one, whether the Buddhist or Hindu caves were carved first and, two, the relative dating of caves within a particular tradition. The broad consensus that has emerged is based on comparing the carving styles, at Ellora, to other cave temples in the Deccan region that have been dated, textual records of various dynasties, and epigraphical evidence found at various archaeological sites near Ellora and elsewhere in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka.</p><br>
<p>The earliest caves may have been built during the Traikutakas and Vakataka dynasties, the latter being known for sponsoring the Ajanta caves. However, it is considered likely that some of the earliest caves, such as Cave 29 (Hindu), were built by the Shiva-inspired Kalachuri dynasty, while the Buddhist caves were built by the Chalukya dynasty. The later Hindu caves and early Jaina caves were built by the Rashtrakuta dynasty, while the last Jaina caves were built by the Yadava dynasty, which had also sponsored other Jaina cave temples.</p><br>
<h2>The Buddhist monuments: Caves 1-12</h2><br>
<p>These caves are located on the southern side and were built either between 630-700 CE,</p><br>
<p>or 600-730 CE. It was initially thought that the Buddhist caves were the earliest structures that were created between the fifth and eighth centuries, with caves 1-5 in the first phase (400-600) and 6-12 in the later phase (650-750), but modern scholarship now considers the construction of Hindu caves to have been before the Buddhist caves. The earliest Buddhist cave is Cave 6, then 5, 2, 3, 5 (right wing), 4, 7, 8, 10 and 9, with caves 11 and 12, also known as Do Thal and Tin Thal respectively, being the last.</p><br>
<p>Eleven out of the twelve Buddhist caves consist of viharas, or monasteries with prayer halls: large, multi-storeyed buildings carved into the mountain face, including living quarters, sleeping quarters, kitchens, and other rooms. The monastery caves have shrines including carvings of Gautama Buddha, bodhisattvas and saints. In some of these caves, sculptors have endeavoured to give the stone the look of wood.</p><br>
<p>Caves 5, 10, 11 and 12 are architecturally important Buddhist caves. Cave 5 is unique among the Ellora caves as it was designed as a hall with a pair of parallel refectory benches in the centre and a Buddha statue in the rear. This cave, and Cave 11 of the Kanheri Caves, are the only two Buddhist caves in India arranged in such a way. Caves 1 through 9 are all monasteries while Cave 10, the Vīśvakarmā Cave, is a major Buddhist prayer hall.</p><br>
<p>Caves 11 and 12 are three-storied Mahayana monastery caves with idols, mandalas carved into the walls, and numerous goddesses, and Bodhisattva-related iconography, belonging to Vajrayana Buddhism. These are compelling evidence to suggest that Vajrayana and Tantra ideas of Buddhism were well established in South Asia by the 8th century CE.</p><br>
<h3>The Vishvakarma Cave</h3><br>
<p>Notable among the Buddhist caves is Cave 10, a chaitya worship hall called the Vishvakarma cave (literally the cave of one who accomplishes everything, or the architect of the gods), built around 650 CE. It is also known as the "Carpenter&#39;s Cave", because the rock has been given a finish that has the appearance of wooden beams. Beyond its multi-storeyed entry is a cathedral-like stupa hall also known as chaitya-griha (prayer house). At the heart of this cave is a 15-foot statue of Buddha seated in a preaching pose.</p><br>
<p>Cave 10 combines a vihara with a chapel-like worship hall that has eight subsidiary cells, four in the back wall and four in the right, as well as a portico in the front. It is the only dedicated chaitya griha amongst the Buddhist caves and is constructed along similar lines to Caves 19 and 26 of Ajanta. Cave 10 also features a gavaksha, or chandrashala, arched window and a side connection to Cave 9 of Ellora.</p><br>
<p>The main hall of the Visvakarma cave is apsidal in plan and is divided into a central nave and side aisles by 28 octagonal columns with plain bracket capitals. In the apsidal end of the chaitya hall is a stupa on the face of which a colossal high seated Buddha in vyakhyana mudra (teaching posture). A large Bodhi tree is carved at his back. The hall has a vaulted roof in which ribs (known as triforium) have been carved in the rock imitating the wooden ones. The friezes above the pillars are Naga queens, and the extensive relief artwork shows characters such as entertainers, dancers and musicians.</p><br>
<p>The front of the prayer hall is a rock-cut court entered via a flight of steps. The entrance of the Cave has a carved facade decorated with numerous Indian motifs including apsaras and meditating monks. On either side of the upper level are pillared porticos with small rooms in their back walls. The pillared verandah of the chaitya has a small shrine at either end and a single cell in the far end of the back wall. The corridor columns have massive squared shafts and ghata-pallava (vase and foliage) capitals. The various levels of Cave 10 also feature idols of male and female deities, such as Maitreya, Tara, Avalokitesvara (Vajradhamma), Manjusri, Bhrkuti and Mahamayuri, carved in the Pala dynasty style found in eastern regions of India. Some southern Indian influences can also be found in various works in this cave.</p><br>
<h2>The Hindu monuments: Caves 13-29</h2><br>
<p>The Hindu caves were constructed during the Kalachuris period, from the mid 6th century to the end of the 8th century in two phases. Nine cave temples were excavated early in the 6th century, followed by a further four caves (caves 17–29). Work first commenced, in order, on Caves 28, 27 and 19 then Caves 29 and 21, which were excavated concurrently with Caves 20 and 26. Caves 17 and 28 were the last ones to be started.</p><br>
<p>The later caves, 14, 15 and 16, were constructed during the Rashtrakuta period, some being dated to between the 8th to 10th centuries. Work first began in Caves 14 and 15 with Cave 16,the world&#39;s largest monolith, being the last of the three to be constructed. These caves were completed in the 8th-century with the support of king Krishna I.</p><br>
<h3>Early Hindu temples: Dhumar Lena, Cave 29</h3><br>
<p>Construction in the early Hindu caves commenced before any of the Buddhist or Jaina caves. These early caves were generally dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, although the iconography suggests that the artisans gave other gods and goddesses of Hinduism prominent and equal reverence. A common feature of these cave temples was a rock cut linga-yoni within the core of the shrine with each being surrounded by a space for circumambulation (parikrama).</p><br>
<p>Cave 29, also called Dhumar Lena, is one of earliest excavations in Ellora and among the largest. Early Hindu temple building in the cave centred around the "Vale Ganga", a natural waterfall that was integrated into the monument. The waterfall is visible from a rock carved balcony to the south and has been described as "falling over great Shiva&#39;s brow", particularly during monsoon season. The carvings in this cave are larger than life size but, according to author Dhavalikar, they are "corpulent, stumpy with disproportionate limbs" compared to those found in other Ellora caves.</p><br>
<h3>Rameshwar temple, Cave 21</h3><br>
<p>Cave 21, also called Rameshwar Lena, is another early excavation whose construction has been credited to the Kalachuri dynasty. The cave was completed prior to the ascension of Rashtrakuta dynasty which went on to expand the caves at Ellora</p><br>
<p>Although the cave features similar works to those in other Ellora caves, it also has a number of unique pieces, such as those depicting the story of goddess Parvatis pursuit of Shiva. Carvings depicting Parvati and Shiva at leisure, Parvatis wedding to Shiva, Shiva dancing and Kartikeya (Skanda) have been found in other caves. The cave also features a large display of the Sapta Matrika, the seven mother goddesses of the Shakti tradition of Hinduism, flanked on either side by Ganesha and Shiva. Inside the temple are other goddesses important to Shakti tradition, for example the Durga. The entrance to Cave 21 is flanked by large sculptures of the goddesses Ganga and Yamuna representing the two major Himalayan rivers and their significance to the Indian culture.</p><br>
<p>The cave is laid out symmetrically according to the mandapa square principle and has embedded geometric patterns repeated throughout the cave. The Shiva linga at the sanctum sanctorum of the temple is equidistant from the major statues of goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, with all three set in an equilateral triangle. According to Carmel Berkson, this layout likely symbolizes the Brahman–Prakriti relationship, the interdependence of the masculine and the feminine energies, that is central to Hindu theology.</p><br>
<h3>The Kailaśa temple: Cave 16</h3><br>
<p>Cave 16, known as the Kailasa temple, is a particularly notable cave temple in India as a result of its size, architecture and having being entirely carved out of a single rock.</p><br>
<p>The Kailasha temple, inspired by Mount Kailasha, is dedicated to Shiva. It is modeled along similar lines to other Hindu temples with a gateway, an assembly hall, a multi-storey main temple surrounded by numerous shrines laid out according to the square principle, an integrated space for circumambulation, a garbha-grihya (sanctum sanctorum) wherein resides the linga-yoni, and a spire shaped like Mount Kailash – all carved from one rock. Other shrines carved from the same rock are dedicated to Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, the ten avatars of Vishnu, Vedic gods and goddesses including Indra, Agni, Vayu, Surya and Usha, as well as non-Vedic deities like Ganesha, Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu), Annapurna, Durga and others. The basement level of the temple features numerous Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakti works; a notable set of carvings include the twelve episodes from the childhood of Krishna, an important element of Vaishnavism.</p><br>
<p>The structure is a freestanding, multi-level temple complex covering an area twice the size of the Parthenon in Athens. It is estimated that the artists removed three million cubic feet of stone, weighing approximately 200,000 tonnes, to excavate the temple.</p><br>
<p>The construction of the temple has been attributed to the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (r. 756-773 CE), but elements of Pallava architecture have also been noted. The dimensions of the courtyard are 82 meters by 46 meters at the base, and 30 meters high (280 x 160 x 106 feet). The entrance features a low gopuram. The central shrine housing the lingam features a flat-roofed mandapa supported by 16 pillars, and a Dravidian shikhara. An image of Shiva&#39;s mount Nandi (the sacred bull) stands on a porch in front of the temple. Two of the walls in the main temple house rows of carvings depicting the Mahabharata, along the north side, and the Ramayana, on the south side.</p><br>
<p>The Kailasha temple is considered a highly notable example of temple construction from 1st millennium Indian history, and was called, by Carmel Berkson, "a wonder of the world" among rock-cut monuments.</p><br>
<h3>The Dashavatara: Cave 15</h3><br>
<p>The Dashavatara temple, or Cave 15, is another significant excavation that was completed sometime after Cave 14 (Ravan ki Khai, Hindu). Cave 15 has cells and a layout plan that are similar to Buddhist Caves 11 and 12, which suggests this cave was intended to be a Buddhist cave; however, the presence of non Buddhist features, such as a Nrtya Mandapa (an Indian classical dance pavilion) at its entrance, indicated otherwise. According to James Harle, Hindu images have been found in Buddhist Cave 11, while many Hindu deities have been incorporated in Buddhist caves of the region. This overlap in disparate designs between Buddhist and Hindu caves may be due to the sites being worked on by the same architects and workers, or perhaps a planned Buddhist cave was adapted into a Hindu monument.</p><br>
<p>According to Geri Malandra, all the Buddhist caves at Ellora were an intrusion in a place that was already an established Brahmanical Tirtha (Hindu pilgrimage site), and not the other way around. Furthermore, given that both the Hindu and Buddhist caves were predominantly anonymous, with no donative inscriptions having been discovered for the Buddhist Ellora caves other than those of Hindu dynasties that built them, the original intent and nature of these cave temples is speculative.</p><br>
<p>The Hindu temple housed in Cave 15 has an open court with a free-standing monolithic mandapa at the middle and a two-storeyed excavated temple at the rear. Large sculptural panels between the wall columns on the upper floor illustrate a wide range of themes, including the ten avatars of Vishnu. An inscription of Dantidurga, critical to establishing the age of the temple, is on the back wall of the front mandapa. According to Coomaraswamy, the finest relief of this cave is the one depicting the death of Hiranyakashipu, where Vishnu in man-lion (Narasimha) form, emerges from a pillar to lay a fatal hand upon his shoulder. Other reliefs in Cave 15 include the Gangadhara, marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Tripurantika of Shakti tradition, Markendeya, Garuda, aspects of life, Nandi in mandapa, dancing Shiva, Andhakasura, Govardhanadhari, Gajendravarada and others. The panels are arranged in dyads, which states Carmel Berkson, reinforce each other by displaying "cooperative but also antagonistic energy" with a mutuality of power transference.</p><br>
<h3>Other Hindu caves</h3><br>
<p>Other notable Hindu caves are the Ravan ki Khai (Cave 14) and the Nilkantha (Cave 22), both of which house numerous sculptures, Cave 25 in particular features a carving of Surya in its ceiling.</p><br>
<h2>The Jain monuments: Caves 30-34</h2><br>
<p>At the north end of Ellora are the five Jain caves belonging to the Digambara sect, which were excavated in the ninth and early tenth centuries. These caves are smaller than the Buddhist and Hindu caves but nonetheless feature highly detailed carvings. They, and the later era Hindu caves, were built at a similar time and both share architectural and devotional ideas such as a pillared veranda, symmetric mandapa and puja (worship). However, unlike the Hindu temples, emphasis is placed on the depiction of the twenty four Jinas (spiritual conquerors who have gained liberation from the endless cycle of rebirths). In addition to these Jinas, the works at the Jain temples include carvings of gods and goddesses, yaksa (male nature deity), yaksi (female nature deity) and human devotees prevalent in Jaina mythology of 1st millennium CE.</p><br>
<p>According to Jose Pereira, the five caves were actually 23 distinct excavations, over different periods. A 13 of these are in Indra Sabha, 6 in Jagannatha Sabha and rest in the Chhota Kailash. Pareira used numerous sources to conclude that the Jain caves at Ellora likely began in late 8th-century, with construction and excavation activity extending beyond the 10th century and into the 13th century before coming to a halt with the invasion of the region by the Delhi Sultanate. This is evidenced by votive inscriptions dated to 1235 CE, where the donor states to have "converted Charanadri into a holy tirtha" for Jains by gifting the excavation of lordly Jinas.</p><br>
<p>Particularly important Jain shrines are the Chhota Kailash (cave 30, 4 excavations), the Indra Sabha (cave 32, 13 excavations) and the Jagannath Sabha (cave 33, 4 excavations); cave 31 is an unfinished four-pillared hall, and shrine. Cave 34 is a small cave, which can be accessed through an opening in the left side of Cave 33.</p><br>
<p>The Jain caves contain some of the earliest Samavasarana images among its devotional carvings. The Samavasarana is of particular importance to Jains being the hall where the Tirthankara preaches after attaining Kevala Jnana (liberating omniscience). Another interesting feature found in these caves is the pairing of sacred figures in Jainism, specifically Parsvanatha and Bahubali, which appear 19 times. Other artwork of significance include those of deities Sarasvati, Sri, Saudharmendra, Sarvanubhuti, Gomukha, Ambika, Cakresvari, Padmavati, Ksetrapala and Hanuman.</p><br>
<h3>Cave 31</h3><br>
<p>Cave 31, consisting of four pillars, a small shrine a number of carvings, was not completed. Carvings of Parshvanatha, guarded by yaksha Dharanendra with his 7 hoods, and Gommateshvara were made into the left and right walls of the hall, respectively, while within the shrine resides an idol of Vardhamana Mahavir Swami. The idol is seated in a padmasan position on a lion-throne and a chakra is seen in the middle panel of the throne. The figure of yaksha Matanga on an elephant is on the left side of shrine while one of yakshiSiddhaiki, seated in savya-lalitasana on a lion with a child on her lap, is on the right.</p><br>
<h3>The Indra Sabha: Cave 32</h3><br>
<p>The Indra Sabha (Cave 32), excavated in the 9th century, is a two-storey cave with a monolithic shrine in its court. 19th-century historians confused the Jain Yaksas for alternate images of Indra that were found in Buddhist and Hindu artworks, thus leading to the temple being given the misnomer "Indra Sabha". Indra is an important deity in all three major religions, but is of particular importance in Jainism as not only is he one of 64 deities who reign over the heavens, he is, specifically, the king of the first Jain heaven, Saudharmakalpa, and the chief architect of the celestial assembly hall according to the Adipurana, a Jain holy text.</p><br>
<p>The Indra Sabha Jain temple is historically significant as it contains evidence, in the form of layered deposits and textual records, of active worship inside by the Jain community. In particular, rituals were known to have been held in the upper level, where the artwork may have played a central role.</p><br>
<p>As with many caves in Ellora, numerous carvings adorn the temple, such as those of the lotus flower on the ceiling. On the upper level of the shrine, excavated at the rear of the court, is an image of Ambika, the yakshini of Neminath, seated on her lion under a mango tree, laden with fruit. The centre of the shrine presents Sarvatobhadra, where four Tirthankaras of Jainism – Rshibha (1st), Neminatha (22nd), Parsvanatha (23rd) and Mahavira (24th) are aligned to the cardinal directions, forming a place of worship for devotees.</p><br>
<h3>Chotta Kailasha: Cave 30</h3><br>
<p>The Chotta Kailasha, or the little Kailasha, is so named due to the similarity of the carvings to those in the Kailasha temple. This temple was likely built in the early 9th century, concurrent with the construction of the lower level of the Indra Sabha, some decades after the completion of the Kailasha Temple. It features two larger-than-life size reliefs of dancing Indra, one with 8 arms and another with 12, both adorned with ornaments and a crown; Indra&#39;s arms are shown in various mudra reminiscent of the dancing Shiva artworks found in nearby Hindu caves. However, the iconography has several differences that indicate this cave shows a dancing Indra and not a dancing Shiva. The Indra panels at the entrance also feature other deities, celestials, musicians and dancers.</p><br>
<p>Art historian Lisa Owen has raised questions concerning whether music and dance were part of 9th century Jainism considering given that Jain theology focuses on meditative asceticism. Rajan, for example, has proposed that Cave 30 may have originally been a Hindu monument that was later converted into a Jaina temple. However, Owen suggests that the celebration-filled artwork in this temple is better understood as part of the Samavasarana doctrine in Jainism.</p><br>
<p>The overlap between Jain and Hindu mythologies has caused confusion, given Book Three of the Hindu Mahabharata describes Indra&#39;s abode as one filled with a variety of heroes, courtesans and artisans, within a paradise-like setting. This imagery is repeated throughout Cave 30, similar to the Hindu caves, setting the context of the temple. However, the symbolism closer to the centre of the temple is more aligned with the core ideas of Jainism; a greater prevalence of meditating images and Jinas – the place where the Jain devotee would perform his or her ritual abhisheka (worship).</p><br>
<h3>The Jagannatha Sabha: Cave 33</h3><br>
<p>The Jagannatha Sabha (Cave 33) is the second largest Jain cave at Ellora and dates to the 9th century according to the inscriptions on the pillars. It is a two storeyed cave with twelve massive pillars and elephant heads projecting towards a porch, all carved from a single rock. The hall has two heavy square pillars in front, four in the middle area, and a pillared interior square principle hall with fluted shafts, all intricately carved with capitals, ridges and brackets. Inside the major idols are of Parshvanatha and Mahavira, the last two Tirthankaras in Jainism.</p><br>
<h3>Cave 34</h3><br>
<p>Certain inscriptions in Cave 34, or J26 according to historian José Pereira, are not deciphered as yet but were likely to have been executed between 800 and 850 CE. Other inscriptions, such as the one by Sri Nagavarma, are thought to date from the 9th or 10th century.</p><br>
<p>This cave features a large seated Parshvanatha Jina with four camara attendants, two of whom hold fly-whisks and seemingly emerge from the back of the Jina&#39;s throne. As with many other Jain excavations, a large pair of yaksa-yaksi is also found in this cave near the Jina. In the back of the cave is a bearded figure with a bowl containing round sacrificial offerings, which have shapes reminiscent of pindas (rice balls) or laddus (sweetmeat). This suggests the scene may be related to Jain devotional worship, possibly a shraddha ceremony. The Parshvanatha in the cave is paired with a standing Gommateshvara, and accompanied by other carvings showing musicians playing a variety of instruments such as horns, drums, conchs, trumpets, and cymbals. A particularly notable feature of the cave is a giant, open lotus carving on its ceiling and rooftop, which is found in only one other Jain excavation and one Hindu Cave 25 in all of Ellora. The placement of the lotus on the cave rather than a sculpture symbolizes that the temple is a divine place.</p><br>
<h2>Visitors, desecration and damage</h2><br>
<p>There have been several records written in the centuries following their completion indicating these caves were visited regularly, particularly as it was within sight of a trade route; for example, Ellora was known to have been frequented by Buddhist monks in the 9th and 10th centuries. It is mistakenly referred to by the 10th century Baghdad resident Al-Mas‘udi, as "Aladra", site of a great temple, a place of Indian pilgrimage and one with thousands of cells where devotees live; in 1352 CE, the records of Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah mention him camping at the site. Other records were written by Firishta, Thevenot (1633–67), Niccolao Manucci (1653-1708), Charles Warre Malet (1794), and Seely (1824). Some accounts acknowledge the importance of Ellora but make inaccurate statements regarding its construction; for example, a description of the caves by Venetian traveller Niccolao Manucci, whose Mughal history was well received in France, wrote that the Ellora caves "...were executed by the ancient Chinese" based on his assessment of the workmanship and what he had been told.</p><br>
<p>The Lalitacaritra, a Marathi text dated to the late 13th century CE, is the first report stating that active use of Ellora ceased in the 13th century. Islamic court records indicated that Deogiri, the capital of the Yadava dynasty, and situated about 10 kilometers from Ellora, had come under sustained attack during this period and subsequently fell to the Delhi Sultanate in 1294 CE. According to José Pareira, there is evidence that work in the Jain caves at Ellora had flourished under Singhana, who ruled the Yadava dynasty between ~1200-1247 CE, and these caves were in use by Jaina visitors and worshippers into the 13th-century. However, Jain religious activity ceased after the region came under Islamic rule in the late 13th century.</p><br>
<p>The Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments at Ellora show substantial damage, particularly to the idols, whereas intricate carvings on the pillars, and of natural objects on the walls, remain intact. The desecration of idols and images was traced to the 15th to 17th centuries when this region of the Deccan peninsula was subjected to iconoclasm by Muslim armies. According to Geri Malandra, such devastation by Muslims stemmed from the perceived offense caused by "the graphic, anthropomorphic imagery of Hindu and Buddhist shrines". Muslim historians of the Islamic Sultanate period mention Ellora in their descriptions of the widespread damage and fanatical destruction of idols and artwork of the region, with some Muslims of this era being known to have expressed concern regarding the wanton damage and "deplored it as a violation of beauty", according to Carl Ernst.</p><br>
<h2>Ellora inscriptions</h2><br>
<p>Several inscriptions at Ellora date from the 6th century onwards, the best known of which is an inscription by Rashtrakuta Dantidurga (c. 753-57 A.D.) on the back wall of the front mandapa of Cave 15 stating that he had offered prayers at that temple. Jagannatha Sabha, Jain cave 33, has 3 inscriptions that give the names of monks and donors, while a Parshvanath temple on the hill has an 11th-century inscription that gives the name of a donor from Vardhanapura.</p><br>
<p>The Great Kailasa temple (Cave 16) is attributed to Krishna I (c. 757-83 A.D.), the successor and uncle of Dantidurga. A copper plate inscription found in Baroda, Gujarat, states that a great edifice was built on a hill by Krishnaraja at Elapura (Ellora):</p><br>
<p>Fort Schuyler is a preserved 19th century fortification in the New York City borough of the Bronx. It houses a museum, the Stephen B. Luce Library, and the Marine Transportation Department and Administrative offices of the State University of New York Maritime College. It is considered one of the finest examples of French-style fortifications. The fort was named in honor of Major General Philip Schuyler of the Continental Army.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Fort Schuyler was one of many forts built along the east coast of the United States under the third system of US fortifications in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when it became apparent that the USA coast was poorly defended against foreign invasion. Fort Schuyler was begun in 1833 and dedicated in 1856 after 75% completion, though not garrisoned until 1861. The fort was strategically positioned to protect New York City from naval attack through Long Island Sound, guarding the eastern entrance to New York Harbor. It is located on Throggs Neck, the southeastern tip of the Bronx, where the East River meets Long Island Sound. Fort Totten, built during the Civil War and largely incomplete, faces it on the opposite side of the river. Their interlocking batteries created a bottle-neck of defenses against ships attempting to approach New York City.</p><br>
<p>Fort Schuyler, at its peak, boasted 440 guns. Its position on Throggs Neck allowed four of its five sides to cover the water approach to New York City. The fort included an extensive hornwork and an advanced redoubt to defend against a land attack. Later, it would be fitted with various other pieces through the continuing modernization of coastal defense artillery, once including 10-inch and 12-inch guns on disappearing carriages installed on the hornwork and on the peninsula around the fort. Coastal artillery emplacements at the fort remained until 1935.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War</h3><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, Fort Schuyler held as many as 500 prisoners of war from the Confederate States Army and military convicts from the Union Army. It also included the MacDougall Hospital, which had a capacity of 2,000 beds. The fort was well designed for its time, it is said to have had one of the most effective waste removal systems ever seen in a fort from this time period. During its active duty, not one man died from disease.</p><br>
<p>Fort Schuyler was also a location where units heading to war would rendezvous and be outfitted and trained before being deployed. Such units include the 5th New York Volunteer Infantry "Duryees Zouaves," and the 69th and 88th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiments (the 1st and 2nd Regiments of Meaghers "Irish Brigade"). From January 1863 until July 1865, the fort itself was garrisoned by the 20th Independent Battery, New York Volunteer Artillery, a unit originally recruited to fight in the war as part of the Anthon Battalion of Volunteer Light Artillery.</p><br>
<p>Duty at the fort was reported to be a dull assignment as the men took the roles of guards and hospital stewards, not artillerymen. From July until August 1865 the Fort was garrisoned by companies A, B, C, F, G, H and I of the Anderson Zouaves (companies D and E being assigned to Fort Wood on Bedloes Island), upon their return from service with the VI Corps of the Army of the Potomac and duty in the defenses of Washington, D.C. The Anderson Zouaves finally mustered out from Fort Schuyler on August 30, 1865.</p><br>
<h3>Endicott era</h3><br>
<p>A ten-gun battery was built 1873-1876 as part of a general fort improvement program, along with a mine casemate (bunker) for a controlled minefield in the river, Fort Totten being an experimental station for coast defense minefields. Later, Fort Schuyler received several modern gun batteries under the Endicott Program, completed 1898-1900 as part of the Coast Defenses of Eastern New York, which also included new batteries at Fort Totten and Fort Slocum on Davids&#39; Island. These included Battery Gansevoort with two 12-inch guns on disappearing carriages, Battery Hazzard with two 10-inch disappearing guns, Battery Bell with two 5-inch guns on retractable balanced pillar carriages, and Battery Beecher with two 3-inch guns on retractable masking parapet carriages. However, soon after completion the defenses of the East River were largely superseded by the Coast Defenses of Long Island Sound, including Fort H. G. Wright on Fishers Island.</p><br>
<p>After the American entry into World War I in 1917, Battery Bells 5-inch guns were removed for potential service in France on wheeled carriages. Most of the 5-inch guns removed under this program were sent to France with the 69th Coast Artillery regiment. However, the regiment did not complete training before the Armistice and did not see action. The 5-inch guns were never returned to the forts and were scrapped circa 1920. At some time, probably in 1918-1920, a battery of two 3-inch antiaircraft guns was built at the fort. In 1920, with the war over, Battery Beechers 3-inch guns were scrapped as part of a general removal from service of the M1898 3-inch gun. The 10-inch guns of Battery Hazzard followed in 1930; the reason for this is unclear. In 1934 the fort was disarmed and turned over to the state. All of the Endicott-era batteries were demolished in the 1950s.</p><br>
<h3>College</h3><br>
<p>In the late 1920s Fort Schuyler was placed on the abandoned list by the USA Army. When this was done, it was targeted for acquisition by Robert Moses for conversion to a state park as well as a permanent shore base for the New York State Merchant Marine Academy (now SUNY Maritime College). A protracted political struggle ensued, but eventually the academy forces prevailed. The site was then rehabilitated by the Works Progress Administration during the Great Depression and dedicated to the school in 1938. The college, which was founded in 1874, still occupies the site, and in 1948 was one of the original 29 founding schools to be incorporated into the State University of New York as the State University of New York Maritime College. The fort has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1976.</p><br>
<h3>Maritime Industry Museum</h3><br>
<p>In 1986, a portion of Fort Schuyler was dedicated as the Maritime Industry Museum. The museum houses exhibits on the history of the United States maritime industry, including commercial shipping, the merchant marine, and the port of New York, as well as exhibits on the history of Fort Schuyler. It is open to the public on weekdays.</p><br>
<p>New Castile  is a historic region of Spain. It roughly corresponds to the southern part of the Castile, taken during the Reconquista of the peninsula by Christian kings from Muslim rulers. Some notable achievements in this reconquest were the capture of Toledo in 1085, ending the Taifa&#39;s Kingdom of Toledo, and the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. It continued to be called the Kingdom of Toledo when it was in the Crown of Castile. Then, it started to be called New Castile in the 18th century.</p><br>
<p>New Castile is separated from Old Castile to the north by the Sistema Central range of mountains, and have historically comprised the Spanish provinces of Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara, Madrid and Toledo. In more modern administration, it covers the autonomous communities of Madrid and Castile–La Mancha (which also includes Albacete).</p><br>
<p>Apollonia  was an ancient city in Hellenistic and Roman Judea, in the Byzantine period renamed to Sozusa .</p><br>
<p>Getzel M. Cohen, The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa (2006),.</p><br>
<p>It was situated on a cliff above the Mediterranean Sea, about 34 km south of Caesarea.</p><br>
<p>It fell to the Muslim conquest in 640 and was fortified against Byzantine attacks and became known as Arsuf (أرْسُوف ʾArsūf, Latinized Arsur). In 1101 it was conquered by the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, and was a strategically important stronghold in the Third Crusade, during which the Battle of Arsuf (1191) was fought nearby. The fortified city and the castle fell to the Mamluks in 1265, when both were completely destroyed.</p><br>
<p>The site of Arsuf (Tel Arshaf; תֵּל אַרְשָׁף, also Apollonia&ndash;Arsuf אַפּוֹלוֹנְיָה-אַרְסוּף) is now in Herzliya municipality, Israel (just north of Tel Aviv). The site was intensively excavated from 1994. In 2002 Apollonia National Park was opened to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>The city is first recorded under its Greek name Apollonia in the final decades of the Persian period (mid-4th century BC). In a long-standing suggestion, first proposed by Clermont-Ganneau in 1876, it was assumed that the Greek name was given due to the interpretatio graeca of the Canaanite deity Resheph (ršp) with Apollo (as god of the plague), suggesting that the settlement would originally have been a "Phoenician" (Canaanite) foundation. The Semitic name ršp would then have been "restored" in the medieval Arabic toponym of Arsūf. While there is no archaeological evidence for a settlement prior to the Persian period, Izre’el (1999) upholds this identification, suggesting that the Semitic name might have been preserved by the Aramaic-speaking Samaritan community. The Samaritan chronicle of Abu l-Fath (14th century, written in Arabic) records a toponym rʿšfyn (with ayin). Izre’el (1999) considers the possibility of identifying this toponym with the Arabic Arsūf, assuming that the ayin may derive from a mater lectionis used in Samaritan Aramaic orthography.</p><br>
<p>A tradition connecting the name with the biblical Resheph, a grandson of Ephraim, is spurious.</p><br>
<p>The name of the nearby Israeli settlement of Rishpon was given in 1936, inspired by a misreading of an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser III, where *rašpūna was read for kašpūna; recognition of the misreading rendered void the identification of Arsuf with a supposed Iron Age Phoenician settlement of *Rašpūna.</p><br>
<p>The renaming of Apollonia "city of Apollo" to Sozusa (Σώζουσα Sōzousa) "city of the Saviour" took place in the (early Byzantine) period, under the influence of Christianity as the state religion, motivated by Soter (Σωτήρ) "savior" being a byname of Apollo as well as of Christ. The renaming is paralleled in at least three other cities called Apollonia: Sozusa in Cyrenaica, Sozopolis in Pisidia and Sozopolis in Thrace. The identification of ancient Apollonia with Byzantine-era Sozusa is due to Stark (1852).</p><br>
<p>The site is variously referred to as Apollonia, Arsin, Arsuf, Arsuph, Arsur, Arsuth, Assur, Orsuf and Sozusa in Crusader-era documents.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>Although some Chalcolithic and Iron Age remains were uncovered at the site, there is no evidence that there was a settlement prior to the Persian period (ca. 500 BC). While the importance of the town was overshadowed by both Jaffa and Caesarea, Apollonia developed into a regional center after the decline of its neighbouring site at Tel Michal in the Late Persian period, and was likely the main city and harbour in the southern Sharon Plain by the mid-4th century BC. It is mentioned in the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax.</p><br>
<p>During the Hellenistic period it was a port town ruled by the Seleucids.</p><br>
<p>Under Roman rule, the town prospered and grew into the chief commercial and industrial centre of the region between the Poleg and Yarkon rivers.</p><br>
<p>In AD 113, Apollonia was destroyed partially by an earthquake, but recovered quickly.</p><br>
<p>Apollonia is mentioned by Pliny, Hist. nat., V, 14, and Ptolemy, V, xv, 2, between Cæsarea and Joppa, and by other ancient authors, including Josephus, Ant. jud., XIII, xv, 4, Appianus, Hist. rom. Syr., 57.</p><br>
<p>The Roman proconsul, Gabinius, found it ruined in 57 BC, and had it rebuilt (Josephus, Bel. jud., I, viii, 4).</p><br>
<p>Apollonia is depicted in the Tabula Peutingeriana, on the coastal highway between Joppa and Caesarea, at the distance of 22 miles from Caesarea, confirming the identification of Arsuf with Apollonia.</p><br>
<p>There was no coin minting in Apollonia, confirming that the town did not have the role of a Roman provincial center but was rather considered a medium-sized coastal town like Jamnia and Azotus.</p><br>
<p>Sozusa in Palaestina was the name of the city in the late Roman province of Palaestina Prima, and its episcopal see was a suffragan of Caesarea, the provincial capital.</p><br>
<p>The name had changed from Apollonia to Sozusa before 449, when Bishop Baruchius signed the acts of the Robber Council of Ephesus with this title.</p><br>
<p>The name Sozusa also occurs in the works of the Byzantine geographers Hierocles and George of Cyprus. Apart from Baruchius of 449, the names of two more of its bishops, Leontius in 518, and Damianus in 553, are also known.</p><br>
<p>The death of patriarch Modestus in 630 in the city is recorded in both Georgian and Arabic texts, the Georgian texts using Sozos (for Sozusa) and the Arabic texts Arsuf, suggesting that both names remained in use for some time in the early medieval period.</p><br>
<h3>Early Muslim period</h3><br>
<p>In 640, the town fell to the Muslim conquest. The Arabic name Arsuf or Ursuf occurs in works of Arab geographers from the 10th century.</p><br>
<p>In the Middle Ages, Sozusa was confused with Antipatris. The identity of medieval Arsuf with ancient Apollonia was first noted by Clermont-Ganneau in 1876.</p><br>
<p>The town&#39;s area decreased to about 22 acre and, for the first time, it was surrounded by a fortified wall with buttresses, to resist the constant attacks of Byzantine fleets from the sea.</p><br>
<p>At the time of the Muslim conquest, Sozusa was inhabited by Samaritans.</p><br>
<p>In 809, following the death of Harun al-Rashid, the local Samaritan community was destroyed and their synagogue ruined.</p><br>
<h3>Crusader to Mamluk period</h3><br>
<p>Godfrey de Bouillon attempted to capture it, but failed for want of ships (William of Tyre, IX, x). King Baldwin I took it in 1102, after a siege by land and sea, allowing the inhabitants to withdraw to Ascalon.</p><br>
<p>The Crusaders, who called it Arsur, rebuilt the city&#39;s walls and created the Lordship of Arsur in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1187 Arsuf was recaptured by the Muslims, but fell again to the Crusaders on 7 September 1191 after the Battle of Arsuf, fought between the forces of Richard I of England and Saladin.</p><br>
<p>John of Ibelin, Lord of Beirut became Lord of Arsuf in 1207 when he married Melisende of Arsuf. Their son John of Arsuf (d. 1258) inherited the title. The title then passed to John of Arsuf&#39;s eldest son Balian of Arsuf (d. 1277). He built new walls, the large castle and new harbor in 1241. In 1251 Louis IX of France re-erected its ramparts. From 1261, the city was ruled by the Knights Hospitaller.</p><br>
<p>In 1265, sultan Baibars, ruler of the Mamluks, captured Arsuf, after 40 days of siege. The inhabitants were killed or sold as slaves and the town completely razed. The destruction was so complete that the site was abandoned and never regained its urban character - in the 14th century the geographer Abulfeda said it contained no inhabitants ("Tabula Syriæ", 82).</p><br>
<p>According to Mujir al-Din (writing c. 1496), the Sidna Ali Mosque just south of Arsuf was dedicated by Baibars at the site of a saint&#39;s tomb where he prayed for victory prior to retaking Arsuf.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>In 1596, Ottoman tax registers recorded a village there with 22 families and 4 bachelors It appeared, just named "village" on the map that Pierre Jacotin compiled during Napoleon&#39;s invasion of 1799.</p><br>
<h3>Catholic titular see until 1965</h3><br>
<p>Sozusa in Palaestina is listed as a titular see in the Annuario Pontificio. Due to the confusion regarding the location of the ancient city, it was also assigned under the name Antipatris. Its last titular bishop of the Latin Church was Francis Joseph McSorley, the Apostolic Vicar of Jolo (d. 1970). It has no longer been assigned since, in accordance with the practice established after the Second Vatican Council regarding all titular sees situated in what were the eastern patriarchates.</p><br>
<h3>British Mandate and Israeli periods</h3><br>
<p>The site was incorporated in Herzeliya municipality in 1924. At the time, a village called al-Haram existed adjacent to the ruins, but it was depopulated during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and the area south of the site was built up as the Shikun Olim (שיכון עולים "immigrant housing") district of Herzeliya in the 1950s.</p><br>
<p>Rishpon was established in 1936 to the immediate north-east of the site. It is part of the Hof HaSharon Regional Council, Central District.</p><br>
<p>Arsuf is a modern "exclusive clifftop community" named for Arsuf, built in 1995 north of the site, in Hof HaSharon Regional Council.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>The site of Apollonia-Arsuf was excavated in the 1990s and opened for visitors as Apollonia National Park in 2002.</p><br>
<p>Excavations were ongoing as of 2015. The excavation report is prepared in three volumes, of which the first was published in 1999. The second and third volume, covering the excavation seasons until 2015, were in preparation as of 2016.</p><br>
<p>The remains above ground before the excavations included the medieval city wall and moat, enclosing an area of about 90 dunam, a Crusader castle with a double-wall system with an area of about 4 dunam, a port with built jetties and a sheltered anchorage, protected by a sandstone reef.</p><br>
<p>Large amounts of pottery were recovered in the area surrounding the city, mostly of the Byzantine and early Islamic period, indicating that the city extended significantly beyond its old walls in the 7th century. A large Roman-era villa maritima was uncovered to the south of the site.</p><br>
<p>Grant&#39;s Tomb, formally known as General Grant National Memorial, is the final resting place of Ulysses S. Grant , the 18th President of the United States, and his wife, Julia Dent Grant . Completed in 1897, the tomb is located in Riverside Park in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan in New York City, across Riverside Drive from the monumental Riverside Church. It was placed under the management of the National Park Service in 1958.</p><br>
<h2>Creation of Grant Monument Association</h2><br>
<p>On July 23, 1885, Grant died of throat cancer at 63 in Wilton, New York. Within hours of Grants death, William Grace sent a telegram to Julia offering New York City to be the burial ground for both Grant and Julia. Grants only real wish when he died was to be next to his wife when he was buried. Grants family agreed to have his remains interred in New York City. William Russell Grace, the Mayor of New York City, wrote a letter to prominent New Yorkers the following day, to gather support for a national monument in Grants honor:</p><br>
<p>The preliminary meeting was attended by 85 New Yorkers who established the Committee on Organization. Its chairman was former President Chester A. Arthur; its secretary was Richard Theodore Greener. The organization would come to be known as the Grant Monument Association (GMA).</p><br>
<h3>Funding</h3><br>
<p>The Grant Monument Association did not originally announce the function or structure of the monument; however, the idea of any monument in Grant&#39;s honor drew public support. The Clay County Enterprise in Brazil, Indiana wrote, "We have not a cent for New York in the undertaking, and would advise that not a dollar of help be sent to the millionaire city from Indiana…. If the billions of New York are not sufficient to embellish the city… let the remains be placed in Washington or some other American city." (September 11)</p><br>
<p>The opposition was vocal in the view that the monument should be in Washington, D.C. Mayor Grace tried to calm the controversy by publicly releasing Mrs. Grant&#39;s justification for the New York site as the resting place for her husband:</p><br>
<p>Criticism was not limited to the debate about the monument&#39;s location. According to The New York Times, there was discontent with the internal management of the GMA. The criticism was: even though the GMA members amongst the wealthiest in New York, they were making comparatively small donations to the effort they themselves were promoting. The New York Times characterized the members as "sitting quietly in an office and signing receipts for money voluntarily tendered." In this early stage, the GMA did not have a model for what the monument was to be; it continued to ask for donations without explaining its purpose, which frustrated and discouraged donors. Joan Waugh captured the feelings of the average citizen in her book, American Hero American Myth: "Why should citizens give money to build a monument whose shape was still a mystery?" The GMA did not propose a definitive plan for the monument until five years later. During its first few years, the GMA fell short of the fundraising expectations originally set by Alonzo Cornell. In the first year, 1885, the GMA raised just over $111,000, 10% of its goal. In the two years that followed, it raised just $10,000. The slow pace of fundraising caused some trustees to resign. No design for the structure yet existed, and without such a design, it was believed that fundraising efforts would continue to remain low.</p><br>
<h2>Design competition</h2><br>
<p>On February 4, 1888, after a years delay, the GMA publicly announced the details of a design competition, in a newsletter entitled “To Artists, Architects, and Sculptors”. This information was made public to the entire nation; it was also published in Europe. The GMA also proposed a new estimate for the monuments cost, which ranged from $500,000 to $1,000,000. The deadline for all designs was rescheduled three times and was then set for a final date of January 10, 1889.</p><br>
<p>The first design competition received 65 designs, 42 of which came from international entries. The Grant Memorial Association did not award an overall winner, and a second design competition was ordered. In April 1890, the Grant Memorial Association selected, from only five commissioned entries, the design of John Hemenway Duncan, who estimated his design would cost between $496,000 and $900,000. Duncan made his first architectural claims in 1883, designing the Washington Monument at Newburgh, the Newburgh Monument, and the Tower of Victory. Duncan built these structures to celebrate the centennial anniversary of the USA Revolutionary War, and he became a member of the Architectural League in 1887. Duncan cited as his design&#39;s objective: "to produce a monumental structure that should be unmistakably a tomb of military character."</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>By 1890, the GMA had a defined design and architect. Although the GMA was becoming more organized and the reality of the monument was becoming clearer, the debate over the monument&#39;s location reopened in Congress. In October 1890, USA Senator Hale introduced legislation to have the sarcophagi placed at a monument in Washington, DC. The legislation did not pass, but the effort reopened the debate over the proper place for the remains of Grant. A groundbreaking ceremony had already been scheduled for April 27, 1891, and although the parties had not agreed on a location for the monument by that date, a groundbreaking ceremony was still held. In June 1891, deliberations ended; the monument was to be built in New York City, and that month, the GMA hired a contractor named John T. Brady.</p><br>
<p>Construction began that summer, and by August, preliminary excavation was complete. Construction was on schedule until the GMA asked Duncan to alter his design in the spring of 1892; the design could not be as elaborate as originally planned because of the Association&#39;s inability to raise the sufficient funds. Construction was also slowed by a stonecutters’ strike in 1892. After 1894, construction proceeded at a faster pace, and by 1896, work on the outside of the tomb was nearly complete. One innovative feature of the tomb construction is the use of Guastavino tile vaulting to support the circular floor above the perimeter of the downstairs atrium.</p><br>
<p>On April 17, 1897, Grants remains were quietly transferred to an 8.5-ton red granite sarcophagus and placed in the mausoleum. The monument was dedicated ten days later on April 27, 1897, on the 75th-anniversary ceremony of Grants birth on April 27, 1822. Julia Dent Grant, Grant&#39;s wife of nearly 40 years, died five years later in 1902 and was placed in a matching sarcophagus and laid to rest in the mausoleum beside her husband.</p><br>
<h2>Decay and restoration</h2><br>
<p>The initial restoration project began in December, 1935 (thirty-eight years after the tomb opened), when the Works Progress Administration&#39;s laborers installed new marble flooring in the atrium. The WPA played a large role in sustaining the monument. Joan Waugh explains that "In the 1930s the tomb was barely maintained by funds from the Works Progress Administration." Shortly after the restoration project began, the old New York City Post Office was being demolished and donated two statues of eagles to decorate the front of the Grant Monument. The laborers of the WPA worked on several projects throughout the 1930s, including roof restoration, electric lighting and heating systems, and removing the purple stained glass windows. The Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company installed amber glass to replace the purple stained glass. Toward the end of the 1930s, a project began to restore the two reliquary rooms, where battle flags were displayed in trophy cases, and murals of the wars Grant had fought in were painted on the walls. In 1938, the Federal Art Project selected artists William Mues and Jeno Juszko to design the busts of William T. Sherman, Phillip H. Sheridan, George H. Thomas, James B. McPherson, and Edward Ord. The WPA installed five busts in the circular wall of the atrium surrounding the sarcophagi. After the many contributions of the WPA, the Grant Monument Association held a re-dedication of the tomb on April 27, 1939.</p><br>
<p>In 1958, the National Park Service (NPS) was granted authority to oversee the monument. According to a report by the NPS itself, a historian admitted that when the NPS first assumed authority over the tomb, they "had no program for the site." Combined with the devastation that New York City was going through financially in the 1960s to the 1990s, that led to great negligence of the site, particularly in the maintenance of the monument. By the 1970s, the tomb was marred by vandalism and graffiti. Many places in the city were in the same state, including Times Square. Trash had heaped up around the monuments, its exterior recesses being used by drug users, the homeless and the criminals for hideouts. Graffiti covered the walls and pedestals, and the vandals chipped away at the masonry at will. The NPS undertook a plan to remove the trophy cases in the reliquary rooms.</p><br>
<p>The abuse of the monument continued until renewed restoration efforts began in the early 1990s; in 1991, Frank Scaturro, a student at Columbia University and volunteer with the NPS, launched an effort to restore the tomb and brought his concerns to Congress. The tomb was still marred by graffiti and, at the time, there were only three maintenance workers and three rangers on daytime duty, with a yearly budget of $235,000. Scaturros efforts drew national media attention and resulted in a $1.8 million grant to restore Grants Tomb. The demands for restoration did not stop at the state level. In 1994, the USA House of Representatives introduced legislation to "restore, complete, and preserve in perpetuity the Grants Tomb National Memorial and surrounding areas." The legislation set by the House required that the restoration be completed by April 27, 1997, the tombs 100th anniversary and Grants 175th birthday. On April 27, 1997, the restoration effort sanctioned by Congress was completed and the tomb re-dedicated. General Grants descendants, who were appalled by the conditions of the tomb, called Scaturro a hero for his efforts.</p><br>
<h2>Current status</h2><br>
<h3>Policies</h3><br>
<p>Grants Tomb is open to the public from Wednesday through Sunday. The visitor center is open from 9:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M., and the mausoleum is open during even-numbered hours from 10:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M. The tomb and visitor center are closed on Monday and Tuesday. The visitor center is located about 100 yards to the west of the mausoleum and contains a bookstore, memorabilia, movie about Grants life, and restrooms. The mausoleum is not wheelchair accessible, although the visitor center does comply with the Americans With Disabilities Act.</p><br>
<p>Photography is allowed in the tomb, but cellphone use, eating, drinking, smoking, and gum chewing are prohibited.</p><br>
<p>Every year on April 27, the anniversary of Grant&#39;s birth, a ceremony celebrating his life is held at the memorial.</p><br>
<h3>Public art project</h3><br>
<p>A sculpture consisting of seventeen concrete benches bearing colorful mosaics was created around the monument in the early 1970s. The sculpture, entitled The Rolling Bench, was designed by artist Pedro Silva and the architect Phillip Danzig, and was built with the help of hundreds of neighborhood children over a period of three years. The project was sponsored by CITYarts, a non-profit organization founded in 1968 to create works of public art by bringing together children and artists. The sculpture underwent restoration during the summer of 2008 under the supervision of Silva.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>According to NYC Parks, "some popular local folk art in Riverside Park contrasts strikingly with the Tomb&#39;s severity".</p><br>
<p>Concerts are regularly held at or right outside Grants Tomb. Examples include Jazzmobile, Inc.s annual Free Outdoor Summer Mobile Concerts at Grants Tomb and the annual Grants Tomb SUMMER CONCERT, which in 2009 featured West Point&#39;s United States Military Academy Band.</p><br>
<p>Grants Tomb is a New York City-based band composed of conservatory trained jazz musicians "with a party mentality", who "got their name from Grants Tomb Park a block away, a favorite band hangout".</p><br>
<p>On his radio and television show You Bet Your Life, comedian Groucho Marx often asked contestants, "Who was buried in Grant&#39;s Tomb?" The riddle is based on the use of the word "buried." The correct answer is "no one," since Grant and his wife are entombed in sarcophagi above ground in an atrium rather than being buried in the ground. However, Marx often accepted the answer "Grant," nonetheless, and awarded a consolation prize to those who gave it. He used the question, among several other easy ones, to ensure that everyone won a prize on the show.</p><br>
<p>Selland Arena on the campus of Fresno State University was nicknamed Grants Tomb during the 1980s, as basketball coach Boyd Grant and his Bulldogs had a distinct home court advantage.</p><br>
<p>Lake Athabasca  is located in the northwest corner of Saskatchewan and the northeast corner of Alberta between 58° and 60° N. The lake is 26% in Alberta and 74% in Saskatchewan.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name in the Dene language originally referred only to the large delta formed by the confluence of the Athabasca River at the southwest corner of the lake. Prior to 1789, Sir Alexander Mackenzie explored the lake. In 1791, Philip Turnor, cartographer for the Hudson’s Bay Company, wrote in his journal, "low swampy ground on the South side with a few willows growing upon it, from which the Lake in general takes its name Athapison in the Southern Cree tongue which signifies open country such as lakes with willows and grass growing about them". Peter Fidler originally recorded the name for the river in 1790 as the Great Arabuska. By 1801, the name had gained a closer spelling to the current name—Athapaskow Lake. By 1820, George Simpson referred to both the lake and the river as "Athabasca".</p><br>
<h2>Geography and natural history</h2><br>
<p>The lake covers 7,850 km&sup2, is 283 km long, has a maximum width of 50 km, and a maximum depth of 124 m, and holds 204 km3 of water, making it the largest and deepest lake in both Alberta and Saskatchewan, and the eighth largest in Canada. Water flows northward from the lake via the Slave River and Mackenzie River systems, eventually reaching the Arctic Ocean.</p><br>
<p>Fort Chipewyan, one of the oldest European settlements in Alberta, is located on the western shore of the lake, where the Rivière des Rochers drains the lake and flows toward Slave River, beginning its northward journey along the eastern boundary of Wood Buffalo National Park. The eastern section of the lake narrows to a width of about 1 km (.6 miles) near the community of Fond du Lac located on the northern shore then continues to its most easterly point at the mouth of the Fond du Lac River.</p><br>
<p>Fidler Point on the north shore of Lake Athabasca is named for Peter Fidler, a surveyor and map maker for the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company.</p><br>
<p>Along with other lakes such as the Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake, Lake Athabasca is a remnant of the vast Glacial Lake McConnell.</p><br>
<h3>Tributaries</h3><br>
<p>Tributaries of Lake Athabasca include (going clockwise); Fond du Lac River, Otherside River, Helmer Creek, MacFarlane River, Archibald River, William River, Ennuyeuse Creek, Dumville Creek, Debussac Creek, Jackfish Creek, Claussen Creek, Old Fort River, Crown Creek, Athabasca River, Colin River, Oldman River, Bulyea River, Grease River and Robillard River.</p><br>
<h2>Development and environment</h2><br>
<p>Uranium and gold mining along the northern shore resulted in the birth of Uranium City, Saskatchewan, which was home to the mine workers and their families. While the last mine closed in the 1980s, the effects of mining operations have heavily contaminated the northern shores. The large oil sands mining nearby is suspected to have added to the current pollution levels in the lake.</p><br>
<p>On October31, 2013, one of Obed Mountain coal mine&#39;s pits failed, and from between 600 million to a billion liters of slurry poured into the Plante and Apetowun Creeks. The plume of waste products then joined the Athabasca River, travelling downstream for a month before settling in Lake Athabasca near Fort Chipewyan, over 500 km away.</p><br>
<p>The Lake Athabasca Sand Dunes, the largest active sand dunes in the world north of 58°, are adjacent to the southern shore. The dunes were designated a "Provincial Wilderness Park" in 1992.</p><br>
<p>Lake Athabasca contains 23 species of fish, with a world record lake trout of 46.3 kg having been caught from its depths in 1961 by means of a gillnet.</p><br>
<p>Other fish species include walleye, yellow perch, northern pike, lake trout, goldeye, lake whitefish, cisco, Arctic grayling, burbot, white sucker and longnose sucker.</p><br>
<p>Carnac Island is a 19 hectare, A Class, island nature reserve about 10 km south-west of Fremantle in Western Australia.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Carnac Island is aeolianite limestone remnant of Pleistocene dunes. It is called Ngooloormayup ("place of little brother") in the language of the Whadjuk Noongar people.</p><br>
<p>In 1803, French explorer Louis de Freycinet, captain of the Casuarina, named the island Île Pelée (Bald Island). It was also known as Île Lévilian and later Île Berthelot. In 1827, James Stirling changed its name to Pulo Carnac Island in honour of John Rivett Carnac, Second Lieutenant on his ship HMS Success. "Pulo" is Malay for "Island&quot it is not known why Stirling included the term, and it was soon dropped.</p><br>
<p>From 1836 /1837, the island served as a whaling station. The whalers transported Perth&#39;s first church to the island to be used as a storehouse. It was abandoned within a few years.</p><br>
<p>From October to November 1838, the island was declared by the Swan River Colony colonial government to be a prison for indigenous Australians. The prison consisted of two guards, an overseer named RM Lyon, and three prisoners named Yagan, Danmera, and Ningina. The solitary conditions resulted in the soldiers assisting the prisoners&#39; escape in a stolen government stores boat.</p><br>
<p>In 1884, the colonial government gazetted the island as a quarantine station for Fremantle, but it appears never to have been used for that purpose.</p><br>
<p>In 1916, the Australian Federal Government assumed control over the island for defence purposes, and the island was transferred back to the State of Western Australia in 1961.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>The island is home to Australian sea lions, bottlenose dolphins and a large range of marine bird life. New Zealand fur seals are frequent visitors. Rabbits inhabited the island in abundance from 1827 to 1897, but were eradicated in 1969.It is particularly noted for the abundance of snakes, particularly tiger snakes, which live there. The island is densely populated with up to three tiger snakes in every 25 square metres. For this reason, very few people venture away from the beach.</p><br>
<p>There is no permanent fresh water, providing a challenge for the animals that live there. The origins of the tiger snake colony has attracted significant debate (one theory is that in 1929, a man named Lindsay "Rocky" Vane dumped his tiger snake collection on the island, after snake exhibitions were banned in Western Australia) and research into how that species has adapted to a harsh island habitat. King skinks also inhabit the island, and there is evidence of confrontation between king skinks and tiger snakes.</p><br>
<p>In November 2006, naturalist David Attenborough visited the island with a BBC film crew to record a reptile documentary, in which Attenborough provided commentary on the blindness of many of the islands tiger snakes. This is caused by birds defending their chicks by pecking at the snakes eyes. These blind snakes survive and thrive, relying upon scent and eating immobile prey such as seabird chicks. Carnac Island is the only place where this has been observed. Male tiger snakes largely out-number female tiger snakes on the island, which is another curiosity of the island&#39;s tiger snake colony.</p><br>
<p>Carnac Island is classified as an Important Bird Area because it supports a large colony of the vulnerable fairy tern, as well as small numbers of other nesting seabirds.</p><br>
<p>Alor  is the largest island in the Alor Archipelago and is one of the 92 officially listed outlying islands of Indonesia. It is located at the eastern Lesser Sunda Islands that runs through southeastern Indonesia, which from the west include such islands as Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, and Flores.</p><br>
<p>To the east of the island across the Ombai Strait lie the islands of Wetar and Atauro, the latter belonging to East Timor. To the south, across the Strait of Alor, lies the western part of Timor. To the north lies the Banda Sea. To the west lies Pantar and the other islands of the Alor archipelago, and further yet the rest of the Sunda Islands.</p><br>
<p>Alor Island, as well as the rest of its archipelago, is part of East Nusa Tenggara province.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Alor has an area of about 2800 km², making it the largest island of the Alor archipelago. Kalabahi is the only town on the island of Alor, with a metropolitan population of about 60,000. The variety of goods obtainable in Kalabahi is surprising considering its size and location. The 2010 census population of the island is 145,299 out of 190,000 in the regency.</p><br>
<p>Alor is of volcanic origin and has very rugged terrain. The region near Kalabahi is the only flat area. This may be why the Dutch chose the location as the capital and main harbor (Alor-Kecil) in 1911.</p><br>
<p>On 12 November 2004, an earthquake occurred, killing 34 people, and injuring 400. The shock had a moment magnitude of 7.5 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe).</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The island&#39;s infrastructure is only weakly built. The inhabitants practice mainly subsistence agriculture. The government seeks to change this with the help of international organizations. In the villages, vanilla, tamarind, In the forests sandalwood is cut down for trade.</p><br>
<p>The latest geological explorations have discovered valuable resources such as gypsum, kaolin, petroleum, natural gas, tin, gold, and diamonds. Alor&#39;s snorkelling and diving may promise an increase in tourism in the future. Alor hosts some of the most healthy and diverse corals in Indonesia and has areas of black volcanic sand for specialized scuba diving interests.</p><br>
<h2>Religion</h2><br>
<p>Over 168,000 people (2001) live on Alor. Three-fourths are Protestants, the rest are either Muslims or in a few villages Roman Catholics. Animistic rites and traditions are still strongly practiced.</p><br>
<h2>Language</h2><br>
<p>More than 15 different indigenous languages are spoken on Alor, the majority of them classified as Papuan or non-Austronesian. These include Abui, Adang, Hamap, Kabola, Kafoa, Woisika, Kelon, and Kui. In addition, Alorese (Bahasa Alor; ISO 639-3: aol) is a Malayo-Polynesian language which is spoken along the coast of the western and southern Bird&#39;s Head of Alor Island and in places on surrounding islands.</p><br>
<p>Many of the Papuan languages of Alor are endangered and are no longer being actively acquired by children. Some languages have fewer than 1000 speakers remaining. Significant linguistic documentation efforts have been undertaken recently by Leiden University. The language of daily communication is Alor Malay, a unique Malay variety with some similarities to Kupang Malay. Indonesian is taught in schools and used widely in media.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>You can reach Alor Island by flying to Alor Male Airport (ARD). Alor airport is small and all incoming and outgoing flights are via Kupang Airport (KOE). Alor is serviced 3-4 times daily by both Lion Air (Wings) and NAM Air. Flights originating in Bali, Surabaya or Jakarta can be booked to Alor if flying with Lion Air, but there is still the stop over to change planes in Kupang. If coming from Labuan Bajo, Ende, Maumere, Makassar, you must first book a flight to Kupang, then book an additional flight from Kupang - Alor same day.</p><br>
<p>The Ether Dome is a surgical operating amphitheater in the Bulfinch Building at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston. It served as the hospitals operating room from its opening in 1821 until 1867. It was the site of the first public demonstration of the use of inhaled ether as a surgical anesthetic on October 16, 1846, otherwise known as Ether Day. Crawford Long, a surgeon in Georgia, had previously administered sulfuric ether in 1842, but this went unpublished until 1849. The Ether Dome event occurred when William Thomas Green Morton, a local dentist, used ether to anesthetize Edward Gilbert Abbott. John Collins Warren, the first dean of Harvard Medical School, then painlessly removed part of a tumor from Abbotts neck. After Warren had finished, and Abbott regained consciousness, Warren asked the patient how he felt. Reportedly, Abbott said, "Feels as if my neck&#39;s been scratched". Warren then turned to his medical audience and uttered "Gentlemen, this is no Humbug". This was presumably a reference to the unsuccessful demonstration of nitrous oxide anesthesia by Horace Wells in the same theater the previous year, which was ended by cries of "Humbug!" after the patient groaned with pain.</p><br>
<h2>History of anesthesia</h2><br>
<h3>Pain relief</h3><br>
<p>The practice of pain relief has existed since the time of civilizations such as Ancient Egypt, China, and Greece, in a multitude of various forms. In Ancient Egypt, natural remedies were often used, while in China, acupuncture was developed as a way to restore an imbalance in the qi, or the life force. In Ancient Greece, medical maladies were often attributed to divine influences, and as such, treatments for these ailments would often include visits to temples dedicated to healing.</p><br>
<p>The use of vapors, which could be inhaled, became more popular in the 18th century as a potential source of pain relief, especially during surgeries, which up to then were generally gory and extremely painful. One of the earliest mentions of the use of an inhaled gas for pain relief comes from the British chemist Humphry Davys, who in his Researches in 1800 noted that, "As nitrous oxide in its extensive operation appears capable of destroying physical pain, it may probably be used with advantage during surgical operations in which no great effusion of blood takes place."</p><br>
<h3>History of ether's application</h3><br>
<p>Horace Wells was a practicing American dentist in Hartford, Connecticut who is considered a pioneer in the use of surgical anesthesia. In 1884, during a laughing-gas roadshow, Wells cited nitrous oxide—colloquially known as “laughing gas”—as having pain-killing properties. After this revelation, Wells used nitrous oxide as a means of performing painless dental work; specifically the extraction of teeth. In January 1845, Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) in Boston allowed Wells to demonstrate the method of anesthesia. Unfortunately, the patient did not respond to the dose of nitrous oxide given, which resulted in Wells’ endless contempt. Wells continued with extensive self-experimentation, such as repeated inhalation, with various chemicals. There is evidence that suggests a strong correlation between his inhalation of chemicals to a drastic change in personality. In fact, he was imprisoned for throwing acid at individuals walking in New York, New York and later committed suicide while the Paris Medical Society named him the discoverer of anesthetic gases.</p><br>
<p>As a former partner in Wells’ practice, William T.G. Morton learned the technique and began experimenting on his own, and in October 1846 Morton successfully demonstrated ether anesthesia. However, Morton’s interest in surgical anesthesia was not solely influenced by Horace Wells, but also Charles T. Jackson and Nathan Cooley Keep.</p><br>
<p>Charles T. Jackson was a professor of chemistry at Harvard University after practicing as a medical doctor for four years before establishing his chemistry laboratory to teach analytical chemistry. It is speculated that Jackson suggested administering a higher dosage and grade of sulfuric ether to successfully anesthetize the patient.</p><br>
<p>For a short period of time, both Horace Wells and William T.G. Morton were taught and employed by dentist, anesthesiologist, and first Dean of the Harvard School of Dental Medicine Nathan Cooley Keep. Keep received his Doctor of Medicine (MD) from Harvard Medical School in 1827 and began a remarkable career contributing to a multitude of history: He developed a color blind admissions policy at Harvard School of Dental Medicine, was an imperative expert witness in the Parkman murder trial because dental work was used as forensic evidence, and was one of the first physicians to administer ether during childbirth.</p><br>
<h2>Ether Day</h2><br>
<h3>The operation</h3><br>
<p>With the help of MGH surgeon Henry Jacob Bigelow, Morton persuaded Warren to allow him to try his technique on a surgical patient. The trial took place in the Ether Dome on October 16, 1846. The patient was a young printer named Gilbert Abbott, who had a vascular neck tumor. Previous anesthetic approaches had utilized alcohol or even a simple blow to the jaw that would render the patient unconscious. However, this was a more delicate surgery, and Abbot had to be tied to his chair so that he would not choke on his own blood.</p><br>
<p>Morton used a newly developed apparatus, later called the Morton Etherizer, to deliver the diethyl-ether vapors, holding the mouthpiece to Abbott&#39;s lips and instructing him to breathe deeply and slowly. Abbott fell into an unconscious, sleeplike state within three to four minutes, and did not react when Morton made the first incision in his neck for the surgery. During the surgery, Warren noted that the blood of the patient was very dark, and thought that the anesthesia might be producing its effect through carbonization of the blood, a remark which was met with a burst of applause. Upon awakening after the surgery, he announced that he had felt a scratching sensation, but no pain. John Collins Warren turned to the observers and proclaimed, "Gentlemen, this is no humbug." Bigelow immediately published an article describing the event and the news quickly travelled to Europe and other parts of America.</p><br>
<h3>The patient</h3><br>
<p>Among the revolving door of noted physicians and important figures supposedly present on the historic Ether Day, one figure remains constant: Edward Gilbert Abbott, the man upon whom the ether and surgery was administered. Abbott was born in Middlesex County, MA in September 1825. His parents, victims of tuberculosis, left him an orphan in 1832. After a career as a printer and editor, in September 1846, he went in to receive a medical evaluation for a tumor he&#39;d had on the left side of his jaw, even though it had been present his whole life and did not cause him any pain.</p><br>
<p>Abbott was given enough ether to make him fall unconscious; he left the hospital with an unremarkable change in the size of the tumor. He was assured—as he probably knew, that it was a benign growth and that he had contributed greatly to the history of medicine. He died in 1855 at the age of 30, leaving behind a wife, a daughter, and a son. The Boston Herald included a mere three sentence summary of his life and descendants in its December 1 issue.</p><br>
<h3>The original Morton Etherizer</h3><br>
<p>Commissioned by William Thomas Green Morton, the Original Morton Etherizer was used on Ether Day as a means of inhalation anesthesia. The Etherizer was made of blown glass with brass fittings at the two open ends, a middle chamber, and a mouthpiece. The middle chamber held a sponge that was soaked in ether, and the chamber would create gaseous conditions thereby making inhalants. The two brass fittings serve as ventilation so that the concentration of the gaseous ether the patient would inhale via the mouthpiece gives the appropriate dose to be safely anesthetized. Currently, the original Ether Inhaler and Case are located in the Ether Dome museum&#39;s collection and is awaiting repair to reattach three loose pieces.</p><br>
<h3>The improved ether inhaler</h3><br>
<p>On April 9, 1898 Messrs, Mayer, and Meltzer unveiled the newly designed Clover&#39;s smaller ether inhaler. The inhaler was modified from the previous inhaler used on Ether Day by adding two circular apertures on both sides of the apparatus located near two small viewing windows. The apertures and windows were used to view the interior of the chamber to facilitate the quantity of ether being administered. Further modifications included the same plated and polished surfaces on the interior as on the exterior. All fixtures on the apparatus are fitted to ensure there is no leakage of chemicals in the chamber or hot-water from the hot-water jacket. The hot-water jacket serves as an insulator to heat the water which then produces condensation. When the condensation is mixed with the ether and is inhaled, it develops the chemical properties of an anesthetic. The hot-water jacket has a detachable screw-stopper that allows the metal cap, chamber, and bag used to anaesthetize the patient to be cleaned of verdigris. All the above-mentioned features were combined with knowledge gained after practice using this inhaler—such as that the slot located near the bag needs to be opened for ventilation after the induction of the patient—combined to develop the new improved ether inhaler.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<h3>The ether controversy</h3><br>
<p>Wells, Jackson, Morton and a Georgia doctor, Crawford W. Long, each claimed credit for the innovation of using ether as an anesthetic.</p><br>
<p>In either December 1841 or January 1842, Long had introduced the use of sulphuric ether as a substitution to nitrous oxide for the use of entertainment at parties. Long was possibly the first to use ether as a way to alleviate pain during surgery. Long had been using ether in surgery since 1842. On March 30, 1842, he removed a tumor from the neck of a young man named James Venable. Over the following years, Long would use ether in his obstetrical practice, however, he never published any of his findings until seeing the December 1846 issue of a Medical Examiner about Morton, who claimed to have used ether as an anesthetic. Long then began to record his findings and write his account of the discovery. He also collected notarized letters from former patients, but after presenting his findings to the Medical College of Georgia, he discovered two others also claimed to be discoverers: Horace Wells and Charles Jackson. When Long entered his claims, this controversy was already in process.</p><br>
<p>Prior to Morton’s public demonstration of ether, he had supposedly met with Jackson (who was known as attempting to steal others inventions) to discuss questions surrounding anesthesia. It is at this meeting where, supposedly, Jackson had suggested to use ether as a means of alleviating surgical pain. Morton had previously experimented with ether, but never on a patient. Jackson and Morton tangled in a bitter legal dispute and pamphleteering war, that lasted 20 years. In 1868 Morton read a newspaper item asserting that Jackson deserved the lion’s share of credit. Morton became feverish, threw himself into a pond in New York’s Central Park and died, probably from a stroke, soon thereafter. Jackson died insane at McLean Asylum in Belmont, Massachusetts.</p><br>
<p>In 1845 Wells had attempted to demonstrate the use of nitrous oxide as anesthesia at MGH but it was “dismissed as humbug” because the patient cried out during the procedure although later, the patient denied feeling any pain. His career then began to spiral down. Wells left the practice of dentistry and his family, and went to New York, where he was arrested for throwing acid on prostitutes. He killed himself in jail by slashing an artery after taking chloroform.</p><br>
<p>While Morton, Long and Jackson sought fame, Long wanted to be recognized, and to alleviate the pain of his patients. Though Long was the first to surgically use ether, he was not the first to introduce it to the world.</p><br>
<h4>Robert Hinckley's The First Operation with Ether</h4><br>
<p>Painter Robert Cutler Hinckley meticulously researched the event, particularly who was present and participating, for his The First Operation with Ether (18821893). He interviewed various Boston physicians and reviewed records and newspaper reports.</p><br>
<p>Hinckley uses light and line to draw attention on the surgery; the side wall of the gallery draws a clear diagonal line which ends at the surgeon Warren’s head. Morton’s ether inhaler reflects light so as to make the sponge contained inside visible. Abbott&#39;s shirt as well as the cloth and the bowl on the table are starkly white, directing the eye to the operation. However, the viewer is shielded from the point of incision and from any blood, lessening the impact of the image.</p><br>
<p>A controversy surrounding the painting revolves around those who are painted into it. Hinckley includes Charles Hosea Hildreth, surgeon Abel Lawrence Peirson, surgeon Jonathan Mason Warren, and physician William Williamson Wellington—all individuals who are highly unlikely to have been present during the operation. Furthermore, he did not include two surgeons who were very likely thereSamuel Parkman and George Hayward. Though it is unknown why Hinckley omitted two individuals, he likely added the others because of their role in the medical history of Boston.The painting is now located in the Countway Medical Library at Harvard Medical School.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>The Ether Dome is one the oldest operating theatres in the United States. Over the years, there has been a concerted effort to restore the original architecture of the Ether Dome while also incorporating modern technology for educational uses today. Architects and designers tried to maintain the authenticity of the space by relying on historical documents and photos. Additionally, specialists analyzed paint chips from the early 19th century in order to help with renovations and to ensure the damages were repaired.</p><br>
<p>The dome&#39;s architecture resembles that of a courtroom or a theatre house where surgeries were performed at the center of the dome. An audience of surgeons and doctors can witness the surgeries and therefore the room has a number of seats arranged in the style of an amphitheater so all spectators can see the details of the medical procedures performed by the surgeons in charge. A visitor to the room can physically determine that the stairs are extremely steep (noticeably larger than the average stair) and can infer that the steepness is so all practitioners could view the educational surgery. Furthermore, a visitor to the room today can see the names of famous doctors crafted on the seats in commemoration of the physicians who contributed to this tremendous discovery. Extremely curious and tedious spectators may notice ceiling hooks near the base of the dome and wonder if the hooks are original. In order to answer this question, general background knowledge of ceiling hooks is needed. The ceiling hook was invented in the late 1880s originally to mount the newly invented ceiling fan. First, the Ether Dome ceased operation in 1867, making it impossible for these ceiling hooks to be for medicinal use, or any use in fact because they did not exist. Furthermore, only recently have companies been able to design a hook that could hold fifty or more pounds which limits beginning speculations of medical purpose of the hooks in 1821.</p><br>
<p>Also, the location of the dome and the large glass ceiling and windows that compose the dome let in light for operations to be performed. Modern day surgery theaters follow the same concept of the Ether Domes stylistic arrangement, however do not feature a dome due to modern lighting technology. However, for hygiene purposes the spectators section is separated from the main gallery by glass. The Ether Dome and its original theatre style architecture has turned into a nationally recognized historical site for interested spectators, especially students of medicine.</p><br>
<h3>The first operating room of MGH</h3><br>
<p>The Ether Dome served as an operating theater from 1821 to 1867, when a new surgical building was constructed. Operating rooms built before electricity were typically located on the top floor of a building to take advantage of available light. Before surgical anesthesia the location was also helpful to muffle the screams of patients for those on the floors below. Because pain often induced shock, surgeons of the day prided themselves on the speed in which they could amputate an arm or a leg. Ninety seconds was considered a good time. Two 19th-century operating chairs famously known as Bigelow Operating chair was built in 1854, are located in the display area behind the seating tiers. Their red velvet upholstery was apparently intended to make bloodstains less visible. It was created in light of this discovery; it was the first of its kind without restraints and had ivory and wooden handles that could be used to position the unconscious, anesthetized patient. The chair quickly fell out of use over the next few decades, however, as it was made from leather rather than metal, which can be sterilized more easily.</p><br>
<p>The Ether Dome has not always served the purpose of an operating room. From 1821 to 1868, operations were performed, it was then a storage area from 1868 to 1873, a dormitory from 1873 to 1889, a dining room for the nurses employed at MGH from 1889 to 1892, and now it is a teaching space. The hospital commemorated the historical significance of the space in 1896 on the 50th anniversary of the first public demonstration of surgical anesthesia. The Ether Dome was designated a National Historic Site in 1965.</p><br>
<p>While the words "Operating Room" still appear inside the door to the closet on the right of the painting, today the room serves as a place for meetings and lectures. The steel tiers with individual chairs date from about 1930, when fire regulations required the replacement of the old wooden bench seating. The names of the chairs have no known significance—it is likely that hospital donors were given the opportunity to name a chair after a favorite figure from MGH history.</p><br>
<h3>Curated displays</h3><br>
<h4>Warren and Lucia Prosperi's Ether Day, 1846</h4><br>
<p>As the 150th anniversary of the first public demonstration of the use of ether anesthesia on October 16, 1846, approached and preparations for the celebration at the Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) began, it was recognized that a proper commemorative painting was needed. The famous Hinckley image, reproduced many times, was painted 27 years after the event. It is the product of the artist&#39;s imagination and portrays, among the actual participants, others who were not really in attendance but are nonetheless "painted into history." Subsequent research has provided a more accurate list of the witnesses.</p><br>
<p>Accordingly, in 2000 the clinical staff of the MGH voted to commission Warren and Lucia Prosperi, well known for their historically accurate paintings, to "do it right." Artists Warren and Lucia Prosperi created this mural between 2000 and 2001, painting on site in the Ether Dome. To represent the historic operation as realistically as possible, a group of doctors and their spouses, working with the Prosperis, searched out photographs, daguerreotypes, and portraits of the participants. They also consulted vintage photographs and artifacts from the MGH Archives and Special Collections. The theatre department of Emerson College was engaged to provide period costumes and makeup. Much of the original paraphernalia—the ether flask, the operating chair, and various furnishings of the amphitheater—was still in our museum and available for the scene.</p><br>
<p>On one Sunday in January, 2001, a group convened to re-enact the historic event on site at the original location, MGH&#39;s Ether Dome, with the Boston press corps in attendance. Two hours were spent debating the likely orientation of the operating chair and instrument table and who would have been standing where so that everyone, including the students in the gallery, could see the action. Many configurations were tested, and The Prosperis photographed hundred of photographs a cast of 20 men, mostly MGH physicians, who gathered in the Ether Dome in January 2000 dressed in period costumes. Finally the scene was set and recorded.</p><br>
<p>Over the course of 2001, Warren Prosperi created the painting with its life-size figures on site in the Ether Dome, allowing visitors to witness the emergence of the historic re-enactment. This painting now hangs on the front wall of the amphitheater.</p><br>
<p>One additional footnote: a special unveiling of Ether Day, 1846 was planned for the meeting of the Halsted Society at the Massachusetts General Hospital on September 12, 2001. Because of the infamous events of the previous day, that meeting was canceled (but held two years later).</p><br>
<p>As the mural depicts, in the years before antiseptic and aseptic surgery, a surgeon typically operated in a frock coat as was appropriate for the dignity of his profession. The ivory or ebony handles of his surgical instruments signaled his status but made the instruments difficult to clean. Sterile surgery was not achieved at the MGH until the 1880s.</p><br>
<h4>Mummy (the hospital's oldest patient)</h4><br>
<p>On May 4, 1823, Massachusetts General Hospital received an Egyptian mummy from the city of Boston, complete with painted wooden inner and outer coffins. The ensemble had been given to the city by Jacob Van Lennep, a Dutch merchant living in the Greek city of Smyrna in the early 19th century. It is thought that Mr. Van Lennep, who was also the Counsel General of the Netherlands, bought the mummy as a gift to Boston as a way to impress his native New England in-laws.</p><br>
<p>The mummy arrived in Boston on April 26, 1823, on the British ship the Sally Ann and was the first complete Egyptian burial ensemble in America. He was placed under the care of the ship&#39;s captain, Robert B. Edes, along with Bryant P. Tilden, Esq., who ultimately made the decision to give the mummy to Massachusetts General Hospital, whose trustees accepted the gift as "an appropriate ornament of the operating room," while also hoping to exhibit the mummy to raise funds for the hospital. The fledgling hospital, which had opened its doors just two years earlier, was still in need of operating funds that would help it better serve the sick and indigent individuals for whom it had been chartered to provide care. The mummy would help raise those needed funds.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after his arrival, the mummy was put on display at "Mr. Doggett&#39;s Repository of Arts" in Boston, where hundreds of people paid $0.25 to see the first complete human Egyptian mummy in the USA That fall, the mummy went on a year-long (1823 to 1824) multi-city tour of the East Coast, raising even more money for the hospital. Upon his return, he was placed in the Ether Dome where he subsequently witnessed more than 6,000 surgeries, including the famous first successful demonstration of surgery under anesthesia on October 16, 1846.</p><br>
<p>In 1823, John Collins Warren partially unwrapped and examined the mummy. He then published the first American treatise about mummies and mummification. The mummy spent much of the late 19th century at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. The mummy&#39;s outer coffin has been at the George Walter Vincent Museum in Springfield, MA since 1932.</p><br>
<p>More than a century later the hospital learned just who the mummy was. In 1960, Dows Dunham, curator emeritus of the Department of Egyptian Art at Boston’s Museum of Fine Arts, examined and translated the hieroglyphics on the mummy&#39;s coffin. Hailing from the 26th Dynasty (663–525 BC) or later, the mummy now had a name—Padihershef, meaning "He whom the god Hershef has given." and a birthplace—Thebes; and an occupation—stonecutter. Newer medical information tells us that Padihershef, or "Padi", was probably between 20 and 30 years of age and was not a stonecutter at all. Rather, he was "tomb finder," or prospector, someone who looked for spaces in the Theban necropolis that could serve as burial spaces.</p><br>
<p>Padihershef’s remains have been studied by means of x-rays and CT scans. In 2013, a donor provided funds for the mummy’s restoration. During the procedure, Padihershef was given a full-body CT scan overseen by Massachusetts General Hospital&#39;s radiologist Rajiv Gupta. This scan, which provided more than 20,000 scans that were then assembled into 3D renderings of his body. Many of these are replicated in the report prepared by forensic pathologist Jonathan Elias, PhD, of AMSC Research, a mummy research consortium.</p><br>
<p>One of the outcomes of the project includes a CT facial reconstruction of Padihershef. Using the scans, 3D facial recognition software and a thorough knowledge of mummy forensics, Elias&#39; group undertook a thorough analysis based on all these factors and using a 3D skull model, developed a representation of what Padi may have looked like in life.</p><br>
<p>The mummy Padishershef has borne witness to many medical milestones during his 190 years in the Massachusetts General Hospital&#39;s Ether Dome. Over the decades, visitors to the room have been greeted silently by this unusual host, standing nestled in his beautifully decorated coffin, and often wondered just who he was and how he came to reside at the hospital.</p><br>
<p>Until this most recent examination, little was known about his life before his death. John Collins Warren, MD, co-founder of MGH and its first surgeon, had performed a post-mortem on "Padi" when he first came to the MGH, which included uncovering the mummys head, as it remains today. In 1931, and again in 1977, X-rays were taken of Padi in his case, which provided a little more insight into his health. Growth lines show that Padi was so ill as a child that his growth stopped for some time before he was well again. Bone damage reveals that he suffered from arthritis. The extensive report included here provides many details of Padis life that were unknown to us until his March 2013 scanning examination.</p><br>
<p>Padi has been restored twice before: once in the 1980s and again in 2002. Salt deposits that build up from the embalming elixir have formed on the exposed portions of Padi’s face and head need to be removed periodically.</p><br>
<h4>The Apollo Belvedere Statue</h4><br>
<p>The plaster statue of Apollo in the Ether Dome was given to the M by statesman and orator, Honorable Edward Everett in March 1845. In exchange, the hospital trustees presented to him "their grateful acknowledgments for his beautiful gift, valuable as a memorial, that, amidst his arduous public duties in a foreign country, Mr. Everett feels an undiminished interest in the charitable institutions of his native land." Everett wanted to exude his appreciation of MGH being a charitable institution—a voluntary hospital with a mission of treating the often poor patients who were in dire need of assistance. In return for the gifted statue of Apollo, the trustees of MGH kept this statue in the Ether Dome as a memorial to his philanthropic acts.</p><br>
<p>The displayed work is a copy of the original Apollo Belvedere, a sculpture unearthed in Rome during the Renaissance. Napoleon looted Rome in the early 19th century and took the Apollo Belvedere from the Vatican to the Louvre in Paris. where the statue that is on display was crafted. The Louvre made and sold plaster casts of the statue, one of which Everett bought and shipped back to Boston. The English sea captain and novelist Frederick Marryat decried, while on a visit to Everett’s home, where the statue was draped to cover its near-nakedness, a few years before the donation, the covering as an example of the prudishness of otherwise educated and open-minded Americans.</p><br>
<p>The Apollo remains a part of the architecture of the Ether Dome as a testament to medicine due to its symbolism. Upon further observing the cast statue, one may notice the snake directly next to Apollo. Snakes are a symbol of renewal and are even displayed in the caduceus—a prominent emblem of healing. Furthermore, the statue is an indicator to visitors that this room represents innovation and the advancement of medicine.</p><br>
<p>The Hippocrates of Ancient Greek scholars worshipped Apollo, and this inevitably led to teachings that would act as a precedent to modern-day medical personnel. Apollo—the god of medicine and healing—was sacred in the original Hippocratic Oath: “I swear by Apollo the Healer, by Asclepius, by Hygieia, by Panacea, and by all the gods and goddesses, making them my witnesses, that I will carry out, according to my ability and judgment, this oath and this indenture.”</p><br>
<h4>Skeleton</h4><br>
<p>The teaching skeleton hanging in the Ether Dome can be seen in the background of daguerreotypes showing the administration of ether anesthesia in 1847. Such skeletons were a common feature in hospitals and medical schools in the 19th century. While the identity of this skeleton is not known, it is possible that it was obtained through the practice of Body snatching, a practice prevalent in the 19th century due to a shortage of available bodies for instruction in medical schools. As medical dissection was illegal in many parts of the United States, students often had to rely on the illicit activities of body snatchers, or resort to grave robbing themselves. In 1831, Massachusetts passed the Anatomy Act, allowing the state&#39;s medical schools to obtain the bodies of the poor, the insane, and those who died in prison. The aim of this act was to decrease the illicit activities of the body snatchers, though it further contributed to the sense of separation between the well-to-do, who could be buried in respectable cemeteries, and the poor, who were at risk of having their bodies used against their wills after death.</p><br>
<h3>Ether Dome sublevel exhibit</h3><br>
<p>Located through small doors on either side of the Ether Dome theater or through a closed door at the bottom of a steep, downwards stairway behind the top row of the theater, there is an exhibit of various Ether Day artifacts and information, including quotes from the Ether Day event. In the round room under the seats of the Ether Dome theater, the exhibit is designated as the “G. H. Gay Ward, Memorial of George Henry Gay” by a shiny, gold plaque. On the walls there are drawings and paintings of notable figures, such as Dr. William T. G. Morton, and pictures of quotes, like “We have conquered pain.” Alongside the exhibited pictures and quotes, there are artifacts like an operating chair and the wedding clothes of William T. G. Morton, which represent an evidence of wealth and a veneration of ether. The hidden crescent-shaped corridor is a significant part of the Ether Dome exhibit that rarely gets the same attention. With a normal diabetes office inside of the small doors, it is easy to see how the Ether Dome&#39;s second half can be mistaken for a locked room or closet behind the Ether Dome.</p><br>
<p>The Neris  is a river rising in Belarus. It flows through Vilnius  and becomes a tributary of the Neman River  at Kaunas . Its length is 510 km.</p><br>
<p>For 276 km the river runs through Belarus, where it is called Viliya, and 235 km runs through Lithuania, where it is called Neris.</p><br>
<p>The Neris connects two old Lithuanian capitals – Kernavė and Vilnius. Along its banks are burial places of the pagan Lithuanians. At 25 km from Vilnius are the old burial mounds of Karmazinai, with many mythological stones and a sacred oak.</p><br>
<h2>Dual naming</h2><br>
<p>The reasons for the dual naming of the river as Neris by the Lithuanians and Viliya (formerly Velja, meaning "big, great" in Slavic) by the Slavs are complex. Even in Vilnius, there are toponyms including both names, e. g. Neris remains in the riverside names of Paneriai and Paneriškės while Velja is a part of the name Valakampiai, which means "an angle of Velja" in Lithuanian.</p><br>
<p>Although it has been suggested that Neris is the primeval name of the river, while name Viliya is of a secondary extraction, the dual naming most probably emerged from the confluence of rivers Neris (now known as Narach River, leaving Lake Narach) and Velja, in the historical Slavic/Baltic borderland, each ethnos choosing their own name for the river starting at the confluence. It is moreover evidenced by the fact that the name Neris was never used to name the river Velja up to this confluence. Therefore, it has been proposed that the Narach River had in fact been considered the upper reaches of Neris by the Balts in ancient times.</p><br>
<h3>Etymology of "Neris"</h3><br>
<p>The name Neris is of Baltic origin, a cognate of the Lithuanian nerti generally meaning "to dive, swim downstream" as well as "to net, crochet". It is likely that the name had a more general meaning of "flow" or particularly "swift and swirling flow" in early times.</p><br>
<p>Etymologically, the name is one of a class of hydronyms, widespread in the modern and prehistoric Baltic ranges; e. g. Lithuanian Narotis, Narasa (rivers), Narutis (lake), Old Prussian Narus, Nara near Moscow. These are related to Lithuanian narus, "deep", and nerti, "to dive".</p><br>
<p>More remote connections are obscure, although the root is believed to be Indo-European. There are a number of possibilities:</p><br>
<p>Pokorny&#39;s 2nd *ner-, "under" (Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, pp765–766)</p><br>
<p>Derksen&#39;s *nerH-, o-grade *norH- (Slavic Inherited Lexicon)</p><br>
<p>A relation to the Greek god Nereus, which may be from *snau-, "to give milk to", in the sense of "flow" (Partridge, Origins (1983)).</p><br>
<p>Another relationship of "Neris" with the Sanskrit word "Neer"/"Naar" which means water.</p><br>
<h2>Basin</h2><br>
<p>Total watershed is 25,100 km&sup2, 10,920 km&sup2; of which with are in Belarus.</p><br>
<h3>Basin within Belarus</h3><br>
<p>The river is called Viliya in Belarus. There is the Belarus largest Vileyka Reservoir by Viliya, up off the Vileyka city.</p><br>
<h4>Right tributaries</h4><br>
<p>Narach River</p><br>
<p>Servach River</p><br>
<h4>Left tributaries</h4><br>
<p>Iliya River</p><br>
<p>Vusha River</p><br>
<p>Oshmyanka River</p><br>
<h3>Basin within Lithuania</h3><br>
<p>The watershed within Lithuania is 13,849 km&sup2</p><br>
<h4>Tributaries</h4><br>
<p>Vilnia</p><br>
<p>Vokė</p><br>
<p>Bražuolė</p><br>
<p>Dūkšta</p><br>
<p>Musė</p><br>
<p>Laukysta</p><br>
<p>Lomena</p><br>
<p>Lokys</p><br>
<p>Šešuva</p><br>
<p>Saidė</p><br>
<p>Voies  is a former municipality in Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Monemvasia, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 215.527 km. It is on the southern tip of Cape Malea. It is a predominantly agricultural region with a few minor villages and one dominant town. Vatika is the common term for the area, but Voies is used in a more official context, particularly for postal situations. Voion, the genitive plural of Voies, is used for description: for example, to differentiate the village of Agios Nikolaos in Voies from other villages and towns of the same name, one would use Agios Nikolaos Voion. Neapoli is the administrative capital of the municipality, and is also the urban center to the numerous villages that surround the hinterland. In Voies you will find Kastania Cave, one of the most beautiful caves in Europe, with high color and shape density.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>There is a single mountain range that runs through the center of the municipality dividing it into two parts, both an east and west section. Adjacent to the west coast of the region lies the island of Elafonisos. The island contains some of the oldest evidence of human inhabitance in the whole of the Peloponnese.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name of the region derives from the initial name of the town of Neapoli, Boiai (Ancient Greek: Βοιαί), which is thought to have been founded in the second century BC. (The pronunciation of many Greek vowels and a few consonants has changed over time, and in Modern Greek the feminine accusative and nominative plural are identical, thus ancient Boiai but modern Voies; see Modern Greek phonology and Modern Greek grammar: Feminine Nouns).</p><br>
<p>The ancient writer Pausanias wrote that Boiai was founded "...by Boios, one of the Heraclidae, who is supposed to have gathered the people from three cities: Etis, Aphrodisias and Side".</p><br>
<h2>Neapoli</h2><br>
<p>Neapoli (Greek: Νεάπολη meaning "new city") (36&deg;30&prime;42&Prime;N latitude, 23&deg;03&prime;31&Prime;E longitude) is the largest town of the former municipality. It was initially an agricultural center, but now has seen a rise in the numbers of tourists (particularly visitors to the neighbouring island of Elafonisos). The commercial center of the town is located on the water front, facing Vatika Bay. There are ferries to the islands Kythira and Elafonisos. The town is surrounded by the villages of Faraklo, Paradisi and Lachi in its hinterland, and Kambos located on the same plain as Neapoli. Neapoli has a kindergarten school, a school, a church and a square.</p><br>
<h2>Agios Nikolaos</h2><br>
<p>Agios Nikolaos (Greek: Άγιος Νικολάος) (36&deg;28&prime;38&Prime;N latitude, 23&deg;05&prime;53&Prime;E longitude) is a small village, south-east of Neapoli. It has a largely agricultural population; however, many inhabitants are employed in the shipping industries.</p><br>
<h2>Places of interest</h2><br>
<p>Neapoli</p><br>
<p>Villages:</p><br>
<p>Velanidia (Βελανίδια), a Byzantine village about 17 km from Neapoli, it includes several Byzantine churches.</p><br>
<p>Faraklo (Φάρακλο)</p><br>
<p>Lachi (Λάχι) - Site of the Ancient city named Itis.</p><br>
<p>Mesochori (Μεσοχώρι) - A village with Byzantine origins.</p><br>
<p>Agios Nikolaos (Άγιος Νικόλαος) - The Agricultural center for the Municipality. The original name of the village dating back in the 17th century was "Panagia" from a homonymous temple of Virgin Mary. Most of the inhabitants trace their ancestry from the Western parts of Crete that was occupied by the Ottomans in 1669 resulting to a wide refugee influx in the Vatica area. Moreover, people from the island of Kythera started populating the village from the early 19th century and onwards. Known families include "Nychas" family presumably indigenous since the 17th century, "Pavlakis" Cretan ancestry and "Michaletos" Venetian ancestry coming from Crete as well. The village has a strong diaspora concentrated in Australia and Pretoria -South Africa.</p><br>
<p>Paradeisi (Παραδέισι)</p><br>
<p>Ano Kastania (Ανό Καστανία) - The location of many Byzantine Churches and Monasteries.</p><br>
<p>Kato Kastania (Κάτο Καστανία)</p><br>
<p>Viglafia (Βιγκλάφια)</p><br>
<p>Elafonisos - A small island just 500 m of the coast of Vatika near Viglafia.</p><br>
<p>Pantanassa</p><br>
<p>The Watts Towers, Towers of Simon Rodia, or Nuestro Pueblo  are a collection of 17 interconnected sculptural structures within the Simon Rodia State Historic Park in the Watts community of Los Angeles. The tallest of the towers reaches a height of over 99 ft. The towers and walls were designed and built by Sabato  Rodia , an Italian immigrant construction worker and tile mason, over a period of 33 years, from 1921 to 1954. The work is an example of outsider art and Italian-American naïve art.</p><br>
<p>The Watts Towers are located near the 103rd Street/Watts Towers Los Angeles Metro station of the Los Angeles County Metro Rail Blue Line, and off the I-105 Century Freeway. They were designated a National Historic Landmark and a California Historical Landmark in 1990. They are also a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument, and on the National Register of Historic Places in Los Angeles.</p><br>
<h2>Design and construction</h2><br>
<p>The sculptures armatures are constructed from steel rebar and Rodias own concoction of a type of concrete, wrapped with wire mesh. The main supports are embedded with pieces of porcelain, tile, and glass. They are decorated with found objects, including bottles, ceramic tiles, seashells, figurines, mirrors, and much more. Rodia called the Towers "Nuestro Pueblo" ("our town" in Spanish). He built them with no special equipment or predetermined design, working alone with hand tools. Neighborhood children brought pieces of broken pottery to Rodia, and he also used damaged pieces from the Malibu Pottery and CALCO (California Clay Products Company). Green glass includes recognizable soft drink bottles from the 1930s through 1950s, some still bearing the former logos of 7 Up, Squirt, Bubble Up, and Canada Dry; blue glass appears to be from milk of magnesia bottles.</p><br>
<p>Rodia bent much of the Towers&#39; framework from scrap rebar, using nearby railroad tracks as a makeshift vise. Other items came from alongside the Pacific Electric Railway right-of-way between Watts and Wilmington. Rodia often walked the right-of-way all the way to Wilmington in search of material, a distance of nearly 20 mi.</p><br>
<p>In 1955, Rodia quit claimed his property to a neighbor and left, reportedly tired of battling with the City of Los Angeles for permits, and because he understood the possible consequences of his aging and being alone. He moved to Martinez, California to be with his sister and never returned. He died ten years later.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation after Rodia</h2><br>
<p>Rodias bungalow inside the enclosure was burned down as a result of an accident on the Fourth of July 1956, and the City of Los Angeles condemned the structure and ordered it all to be destroyed. Actor Nicholas King and a film editor William Cartwright visited the site in 1959, and purchased the property from that neighbor for $2,000 in order to preserve it. The Citys decision to pursue expediting the demolition was still in force. The towers had already become famous and there was opposition from around the world. King, Cartwright, architects, artists, enthusiasts, academics, and community activists formed the Committee for Simon Rodia&#39;s Towers in Watts. The Committee negotiated with the city to allow for an engineering test to establish the safety of the structures and avoid demolition of the structures.</p><br>
<p>The test took place on October 10, 1959. For the test, steel cable was attached to each Tower and a crane was used to exert lateral force, all connected to a load-force meter. The crane was unable to topple or even shift the Towers with the forces applied, and the test was concluded when the crane experienced mechanical failure. Bud Goldstone and Edward Farrell were the engineer and architect leading the team. The stress test registered 10,000 lbs. The Towers are anchored less than 2 ft in the ground, and have been highlighted in architectural textbooks, and have changed the way some structures are designed for stability and endurance.</p><br>
<p>The Committee preserved the Towers independently until 1975 when for the purpose of guardianship, they partnered with the City of Los Angeles. The City partnered with the State of California in 1978. It is operated by the City of Los Angeles Cultural Affairs Department and curated by the Watts Towers Arts Center/Charles Mingus Youth Arts Center, which grew out of the Youth Arts Classes established in the house structure more than 50 years ago.</p><br>
<p>In February 2011, LACMA received a grant from the James Irvine Foundation to scientifically assess and report on the condition of the Watts Towers, to continue to preserve the undisturbed structural integrity and composition of the aging works of art.</p><br>
<p>The Watts Towers are considered one of Southern California&#39;s most culturally significant public artworks. They are one of nine folk art sites listed in the National Register of Historic Places, and were designated a National Historic Landmark in 1990. The towers were also designated a California Historical Landmark in 1990.</p><br>
<h3>Conservation and damage</h3><br>
<p>The weather and moisture have caused pieces of tile and glass to become loose on the towers, which are conserved for reattachment in the ongoing restoration work. The structures suffered little from the 1994 Northridge earthquake in the region, with only a few pieces shaken loose.</p><br>
<p>The structures have not been compromised by vandalism and are granted respect by the local and surrounding communities.</p><br>
<h2>Watts Towers Arts Center</h2><br>
<p>The Watts Towers Arts Center is an adjacent community arts center. The current facility opened in 1970. Prior to that, the Center operated under a canopy next to the Towers. The center was built and staffed by the non-profit Committee for Simon Rodias Towers in Watts. Changing displays of contemporary artworks are on exhibit, and tours of the Watts Towers are conducted by the center. The Centers Charles Mingus Youth Arts Center holds art classes, primarily for youth and Special Needs adults from the local community and surrounding cities. Partnerships with CalArts and Sony Pictures provide media arts and piano classes. The Day of the Drum and Jazz Festival occurs annually on last weekend of every September. It includes arts and craft booths and live music.</p><br>
<h2>Guided tours</h2><br>
<p>The only way to enter the gates of the Watts Towers is with a guided tour. Guides explain the history and context of the towers. As of June 2017 general admission is $7.00, seniors $3.00 and children under 12 years of age are free. Tours run Thursday through Saturday 10:30 am to 3:00 pm and Sundays 12:30 pm to 3:00 pm. There are no guided tours on Monday through Wednesday.</p><br>
<h2>Media</h2><br>
<h3>Literature</h3><br>
<p>Jazz musician Charles Mingus mentioned Rodias Towers in his 1971 autobiography Beneath the Underdog, writing about his childhood fascination with Rodia and his work. There is also a reference to the work in Don DeLillos novel Underworld.</p><br>
<p>California-based poet Robert Duncan featured Rodia&#39;s Towers in his 1959 poem, "Nel Mezzo del Cammin di Nostra Vita," as an example of democratic art that is free of church/state power structures.</p><br>
<p>In his book White Sands Geoff Dyer writes about his visit to the Watts Towers in the chapter The Ballad of Jimmy Garrison.</p><br>
<h3>Film</h3><br>
<p>The 1957 short documentary film The Towers, by William Hale, includes voice recordings of Rodia and footage of the artist at work. The film incorrectly refers to the artist as "Simon Rodilla".</p><br>
<p>In the 1967 movie Good Times, Sonny & Cher danced around in one of the towers.</p><br>
<p>In the 1972 movie Melinda the title character is taken to see the towers.</p><br>
<p>The climax of the 1976 blaxploitation movie Dr. Black, Mr. Hyde takes place at the towers.</p><br>
<p>The climax of the 1977 blaxploitation movie Abar, the First Black Superman takes place at the towers.</p><br>
<p>The 1988 movie Colors ends with Sean Penn near the towers.</p><br>
<p>The 1991 movie Ricochet, starring Denzel Washington, climaxes with Denzel&#39;s character swinging on the towers.</p><br>
<p>The 1993 movie CB4 shows Chris Elliot recording a piece for his character&#39;s documentary in front of the towers.</p><br>
<p>The 1993 movie Menace II Society shows the towers at the beginning of the 1993 introduction.</p><br>
<p>The 2006 documentary I Build the Tower focuses on Sabato "Simon" Rodia, and his creative vision and skill in building the Towers. The 1987 docudrama Daniel and The Towers is about them also. The Towers of Simon Rodia is a 2008 documentary filmed in digital 3-D.</p><br>
<p>The 2016 movie La La Land shows the film&#39;s main characters visiting the towers in a montage sequence.</p><br>
<h3>Television</h3><br>
<p>Watts Towers were highlighted in the 1973 BBC television series The Ascent of Man, written and presented by Jacob Bronowski, in the episode "The Grain in the Stone — tools, and the development of architecture and sculpture".</p><br>
<p>The towers were also depicted on The Simpsons episode "Angry Dad: The Movie".</p><br>
<p>The towers are referenced in Dragnet season 2 episode 4.</p><br>
<p>The towers appear and are discussed by student artists Claire Fisher and Russel Corwin in "Nobody Sleeps", the Season 3 Episode 4 of Six Feet Under.</p><br>
<p>The towers appear and are discussed in 2017 Season 1, Episode 1 of the Amazon Originals production of "Long Strange Trip"</p><br>
<h3>Radio</h3><br>
<p>In an August 2017 episode of BBC Radio 4&#39;s The Museum of Curiosity, California-born textile artist Kaffe Fassett chose the Watts Towers as his hypothetical donation to this imaginary museum.</p><br>
<h3>Video games</h3><br>
<p>The 2004 game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas features the Jefferson Towers (also named as Sculpture Park) in the city of Los Santos, based on the Watts Towers.</p><br>
<p>The 2005 street racing game LA Rush features the Watts Towers.</p><br>
<p>The 2008 street racing game Midnight Club: Los Angeles features the Watts Towers.</p><br>
<p>The 2013 game Grand Theft Auto: V similarly features the Watts Towers, but in this version named as Rancho Towers.</p><br>
<p>The 2014 game Wasteland 2 features the Watts Towers as part of the town of Rodia.</p><br>
<p>Mittry Lake is located in the Mittry Lake Wildlife Area, just north of Yuma, Arizona, on the Lower Colorado River. It is located in between the upstream Imperial Dam and the downstream Laguna Dam. Mittry Lake comprises about 750 acre, with much of the shoreline covered with cattails and bullrush. The lake has undergone rehabilitation work including marsh dredging, revegetation and fish habitat improvement, making it a great location for small game hunting and sport fishing. It is public land managed by both the Arizona Game and Fish Department and Bureau of Land Management, and available to the public for recreational purposes.</p><br>
<h2>La Laguna</h2><br>
<p>La Laguna was a mining town that was in existence for a short time from 1860 to 1862. The town had a few merchants and a ferry across the Colorado River that served placer miners in the vicinity. When the La Paz gold rush began, La Laguna was abandoned. Its former site now lies beneath Mittry Lake.</p><br>
<h2>Fish species</h2><br>
<p>Largemouth Bass</p><br>
<p>Crappie</p><br>
<p>Bullhead catfish</p><br>
<p>Catfish (Channel)</p><br>
<p>Catfish (Flathead)</p><br>
<p>Tilapia</p><br>
<p>Redear Sunfish</p><br>
<p>Green Sunfish</p><br>
<p>Bluegill Sunfish</p><br>
<p>Carp</p><br>
<p>Bullfrogs</p><br>
<p>Coniston Water in Cumbria is the third largest lake in the English Lake District. It is five miles long by half a mile wide , has a maximum depth of 184 feet , and covers an area of 1.89 square miles. The lake has an elevation of 143 feet  above sea level. It drains to the sea via the River Crake.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and administration</h2><br>
<p>Coniston Water is situated within the boundaries of the historic county of Lancashire. Today Coniston Water forms part of the administrative county of Cumbria.</p><br>
<p>Coniston Water is an example of a ribbon lake formed by glaciation. The lake sits in a deep U-shaped glaciated valley scoured by a glacier in the surrounding volcanic and limestone rocks during the last ice age.</p><br>
<p>To the north-west of the lake rises the Old Man of Coniston, the highest fell in the Coniston Fells group.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>" The kings estate or village. The 2nd el. is OE tūn, and the whole name may, like numerous English Kingstons, be from OE cyninges-tūn.... Scand influence is, meanwhile, shown by the -o- of early and modern spellings, and Ekwall speculated that this could have been the centre of a small Scandinavian mountain kingdom&#39; ".</p><br>
<p>Plus "OE wæter, with the meaning probably influenced by its ON relative vatn."</p><br>
<p>(OE=Old English; ON=Old Norse).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Remains of agricultural settlements from the Bronze Age have been found near the shores of Coniston Water. The Romans mined copper from the fells above the lake. A potash kiln and two iron bloomeries show that industrial activity continued in medieval times. In the 13th and 14th centuries, Coniston Water was an important source of fish for the monks of Furness Abbey who owned the lake and much of the surrounding land. Copper mining continued in the area until the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>The lake was formerly known as "Thurston Water", a name derived from the Old Norse personal name Thursteinn + Old English waeter.</p><br>
<p>Derivation of the Names of Lake District Lakes and Tarns This name was used as an alternative to Coniston Water until the late 18th century.</p><br>
<p>The Victorian artist and philosopher John Ruskin owned Brantwood House on the eastern shore of the lake, and lived in it from 1872 until his death in 1900. Ruskin is buried in the churchyard in the village of Coniston, at the northern end of the lake. His secretary the antiquarian W. G. Collingwood wrote a historical novel Thorstein of the Mere about the Northmen who settled on the island in the lake.</p><br>
<p>The Victorian and Edwardian artist Henry Robinson Hall settled in Coniston during the Great War and is buried in the parish church graveyard.</p><br>
<p>Arthur Ransome set his childrens novel Swallows and Amazons and the sequels Swallowdale, Winter Holiday, Pigeon Post and The Picts and the Martyrs around a fictional lake derived from a combination of Coniston Water and Windermere. The fictional lake resembles Windermere, but the surrounding hills and fells resemble those of Coniston Water. Some of Coniston Waters islands and other local landmarks can be identified in the novels. In particular the books&#39; Wild Cat Island with its secret harbour is based on Peel Island. The Amazon River is based on the River Crake. The Swallows and Amazons series involve school holiday adventures in the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>Historically, Coniston was part of Lancashire (North of the Sands), until Local Government reorganisation in 1974 when Cumbria was created.</p><br>
<h2>Waterspeed record</h2><br>
<p>In the 20th century Coniston Water was the scene of many attempts to break the world water speed record. On August 19, 1939, Sir Malcolm Campbell set the record at 141.74 miles per hour (228.108 km/h) in Bluebird K4. Between 1956 and 1959 Sir Malcolm&#39;s son Donald Campbell set four successive records on the lake in Bluebird K7, a hydroplane.</p><br>
<p>In 1966 Donald Campbell decided that he needed to exceed 300 miles per hour (483 km/h) in order to retain the record. On January 4, 1967, he achieved a top speed of over 320 miles per hour (515 km/h) in Bluebird K7 on the return leg of a record-breaking attempt. He then lost control of Bluebird, which somersaulted and crashed, sinking rapidly. Campbell was killed instantly on impact when decapitated by the K7s windscreen. The attempt could not be counted as a record-breaking run because the second leg was not completed. The remains of Bluebird were recovered from the water in 2001 and the majority of Campbells body was recovered later in the same year.</p><br>
<h2>Lady in the Lake</h2><br>
<p>In recent times, Coniston Water has become known for a controversial murder case. Mrs Carol Park was dubbed the "Lady in the Lake" after the Raymond Chandler novel of the same name.</p><br>
<h2>Boating</h2><br>
<p>The lake is ideal for kayaking and canoeing and there are a number of good sites for launching and recovery. It is paddled as the second leg of the Three Lakes Challenge.</p><br>
<p>The steam yacht Gondola tours the lake in the summer months, along with two smaller motorised launches.</p><br>
<p>Boats can be hired from the lakeside near the steam yacht, with various sizes of boat for hire, from small canoes and kayaks to large personal craft. Along with Ullswater and Derwentwater, Coniston Water has a mandatory waterspeed limit of 10 mph. This is suspended temporarily for boats attempting new world waterspeed records during Records Week, usually the first week in November.</p><br>
<p>Mount Adams, known by some Native American tribes as Pahto or Klickitat, is a potentially active stratovolcano in the Cascade Range. Although Adams has not erupted in more than 1,000 years, it is not considered extinct. It is the second-highest mountain in the USA state of Washington, after Mount Rainier.</p><br>
<p>Adams is a member of the Cascade Volcanic Arc, and is one of the arcs largest volcanoes, located in a remote wilderness approximately 34 mi east of Mount St. Helens. The Mount Adams Wilderness consists of the upper and western part of the volcanos cone. The eastern side of the mountain is designated as part of the territory of the Yakama Nation.</p><br>
<p>Adams&#39; asymmetrical and broad body rises 1.5 mi above the Cascade crest. Its nearly flat summit was formed as a result of cone-building eruptions from separated vents. Air travelers flying the busy routes above the area sometimes confuse Mount Adams with nearby Mount Rainier, which has a similar flat-topped shape.</p><br>
<p>The Pacific Crest Trail traverses the western flank of the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>General</h3><br>
<p>Mount Adams stands 37 mi east of Mount St. Helens and about 50 mi south of Mount Rainier. It is 30 mi north of the Columbia River and 55 mi north of Mount Hood in Oregon. The nearest major cities are Yakima, 50 mi to the northeast, and the Portland metropolitan area, 60 mi to the southwest. Between half and two thirds of Adams is within the Mount Adams Wilderness of the Gifford Pinchot National Forest. The remaining area is within the Mount Adams Recreation Area of the Yakama Indian Reservation. While many of the volcanic peaks in Oregon are located on the Cascade Crest, Adams is the only active volcano in Washington to do so. It is farther east than all the rest of Washington’s volcanoes except Glacier Peak.</p><br>
<p>Adams is one of the long-lived volcanoes in the Cascade Range, with minor activity beginning 900,000 years ago and major cone building activity beginning 520,000 years ago. The whole mountain has been completely eroded by glaciers to an elevation of 8,200 ft twice during its lifetime. The current cone was built during the most recent major eruptive period 40,000-10,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Standing at 12,281 ft, Adams towers about 9,800 ft over the surrounding countryside. It is the second-highest mountain in Washington and third-highest in the Cascade Range. Because of the way it developed, it is the largest volcano in Washington and second-largest in the Cascades, behind only Mount Shasta. Its large size is reflected in its 18 mi-diameter base, which has a prominent north-south trending axis.</p><br>
<p>Adams is the source of the headwaters for two major rivers, the Lewis River and White Salmon River. The many streams that emanate from the glaciers and from springs at its base flow into two more major river systems, the Cispus River and the Klickitat River. The streams on the north and west portions of Adams feed the Cispus River, which joins the Cowlitz River near Riffe Lake, and the Lewis River.</p><br>
<p>To the south, the White Salmon River has its source on the lower flanks of the west side of Adams and gains additional flows from streams along the southwest side of the mountain. Streams on the east side all flow to the Klickitat River. Streams on all sides, at some point in their courses, provide essential irrigation water for farming and ranching. The Klickitat and White Salmon rivers are nearly completely free flowing, with only small barriers to aid irrigation (White Salmon) and erosion control (Klickitat). The Cispus and Lewis rivers have been impounded with dams farther downstream for flood control and power generation purposes.</p><br>
<p>Mount Adams is the second-most isolated, in terms of access, stratovolcano in Washington; Glacier Peak is the most isolated. Only two major highways pass close to it. Highway 12 passes about 25 miles to the north of Adams through the Cascades. Highway 141 comes within 13 miles of Adams as it follows the White Salmon River valley up from the Columbia River to the small town of Trout Lake. From either highway, travelers have to use Forest Service roads to get closer to the mountain. The main access roads, FR 23, FR 82, FR 80, and FR 21, are paved for part of their length. Most all other roads are gravel or dirt, with varying degrees of maintenance. Access to the Mount Adams Recreation Area is by way of FR 82, which becomes BIA 285 at the Yakama reservation boundary. BIA 285 is known to be extremely rough and often suitable only for trucks or high-clearance vehicles. Two small towns, Glenwood and Trout Lake, are located in valleys less than 15 miles from the summit, Glenwood on the southeast quarter and Trout Lake on the southwest quarter.</p><br>
<p>Its size and distance from major cities, and the tendency of some people to forget or ignore Mount Adams, has led some people to call this volcano “The Forgotten Giant of Washington.”</p><br>
<p>On a clear day from the summit, other visible volcanoes in the Cascade Range include Mount Rainier, Mount Baker, and Glacier Peak to the north, Mount Saint Helens to the west, all in Washington; and Mount Hood, Mount Jefferson, the Three Sisters, Mount Thielsen, Mount Scott, Diamond Peak, and Mount McLoughlin, all to the south in Oregon.</p><br>
<h3>Summit area</h3><br>
<p>Contrary to legend, the flatness of Adams current summit area is not due to the loss of the volcanos peak. Instead it was formed as a result of cone-building eruptions from separated vents. A false summit, Pikers Peak, rises 11,657 ft on the south side of the nearly half-mile (800 m) wide summit area. The true summit is about 600 ft higher on the gently sloping north side. A small lava and scoria cone marks the highest point. Suksdorf Ridge is a long buttress descending from the false summit down to an elevation of 8,000 ft. This structure was built by repeated lava flows in the late Pleistocene. The Pinnacle forms the northwest false summit and was created by erosion from the Adams and White Salmon glaciers. On the east side, The Castle is a low prominence at the top of Battlement Ridge. The summit crater is filled with snow and is open on its west rim.</p><br>
<h3>Flank terrain features</h3><br>
<p>Prominent ridges descend from the mountain on all sides. On the north side, the aptly named North Cleaver comes down from a point below the summit ice cap heading almost due north. The Northwest Ridge and West Ridge descend from the Pinnacle, to the northwest and west, respectively. Stagman Ridge descends west-southwest from a point about halfway up the west side and turns more southwest at about 6,000 ft. South of Stagman Ridge lies Crofton Ridge. Crofton gradually becomes very broad as it descends southwesterly from the tree line. MacDonald Ridge, on the south side, starts at about tree line below the lower end of Suksdorf Ridge and descends in a southerly direction.</p><br>
<p>Three prominent ridges descend from the east side of the mountain. The Ridge of Wonders is furthest south and ends at an area away from the mountain called The Island. Battlement Ridge is very rugged and descends from high on the mountain. The furthest ridge north on the east side, Victory Ridge, descends from a lower elevation on the mountain than Battlement Ridge beneath the precipitous Roosevelt Cliff. Lava Ridge, starting at about the same location as the North Cleaver, descends slightly east of north.</p><br>
<p>Several rock prominences exist on the lower flanks of Adams. The Spearhead is an abrupt rocky prominence near the bottom of Battlement Ridge. Burnt Rock, The Hump, and The Bumper are three smaller rocky prominences at or below the tree line on the west side.</p><br>
<h3>Glaciers</h3><br>
<p>In the early 21st century, glaciers cover a total of 2.5% of Adams surface. During the last ice age about 90% of the mountain was glaciated. Mount Adams has 209 perennial snow and ice features and 12 officially named glaciers. The total ice-covered area makes up 9.3 square miles, while the area of named glaciers is 7.7 square miles. Most of the largest remaining glaciers (including the Adams, Klickitat, Lyman, and White Salmon) originate from Adams summit ice cap.</p><br>
<p>On the northwest face of the mountain, Adams Glacier cascades down a steep channel in a series of icefalls before spreading out and terminating at around the 7,000 ft elevation, where it becomes the source of the Lewis River and Adams Creek, a tributary of the Cispus River. Its eastern lobe ends at a small glacial tarn, Equestria Lake. In the Cascades, Adams Glacier is second in size only to Carbon Glacier on Mount Rainier.</p><br>
<p>The Pinnacle, White Salmon, and Avalanche glaciers on the west side of the mountain are less thick and voluminous, and are generally patchy in appearance. They all originate from glacial cirques below the actual summit. Although the White Salmon Glacier does not originate from the summit ice cap, it does begin very high on the mountain at about 11,600 ft. In the early 1900s, a portion of it descended from the summit ice cap, but volume loss has separated it. Some of its glacial ice feeds the Avalanche Glacier below it to the southwest while the rest tumbles over some large cliffs to its diminutive lower section to the west. The White Salmon and Avalanche Glaciers feed the many streams of the Salt Creek and Cascade Creek drainages, which flow into the White Salmon River. The Pinnacle Glacier is the source of a fork of the Lewis River as well as Riley Creek, which is also a tributary of the Lewis River.</p><br>
<p>The south side of the mountain along Suksdorf Ridge is moderately glacier-free, with the only glaciers being the relatively small Gotchen Glacier and the Crescent Glacier. The south side, however, does have some perennial snowfields on its slopes. The Crescent Glacier is the source of Morrison Creek; and, although it does not feed it directly, the Gotchen Glacier is the source of Gotchen Creek. Both creeks drain to the White Salmon River.</p><br>
<p>The rugged east side has four glaciers, the Mazama Glacier, Klickitat Glacier, Rusk Glacier, and the Wilson Glacier. During the last Ice Age, they carved out two immense canyons: the Hellroaring Canyon and the Avalanche Valley. This created the Ridge of Wonders between the two. Of the four glaciers on the east side, the Mazama Glacier is the furthest south and begins between the Suksdorf Ridge and Ridge of Wonders at about 10,500 ft. Near its terminus, it straddles the Ridge of Wonders and a small portion feeds into the Klickitat Glacier. The glacier gains more area from additional glacier ice that collects from drifting snow and avalanches below the Suksdorf Ridge as the ridge turns south. The Mazama Glacier terminates at about 8,000 ft and is the source of Hellroaring Creek, which flows over several waterfalls before it joins Big Muddy Creek. Klickitat Glacier on the volcano&#39;s eastern flank originates in a 1 mi wide cirque and is fed by two smaller glaciers from the summit ice cap. It terminates around 6,600 ft, where it becomes the source of Big Muddy Creek, a tributary of the Klickitat River. The Rusk Glacier does not start from the summit ice cap, but starts at 10,500 ft below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice from the summit cap. It is enclosed on the south by Battlement Ridge and Victory Ridge on the north and terminates at about 7,100 ft. It is the source of Rusk Creek, which flows over two waterfalls before joining the Big Muddy on its way to the Klickitat. The Wilson Glacier, like the Rusk Glacier, starts below the Roosevelt Cliff and is fed by avalanching snow and ice; however, the Wilson Glacier starts slightly higher at about 10,800 ft. It is also fed by an arm of the Lyman Glacier as it flows down from the summit ice cap. The Wilson Glacier terminates at 7,500 ft where it is the source of Little Muddy Creek, another tributary of the Klickitat.</p><br>
<p>The north side is distinguished by two major glaciers, the Lyman and Lava Glaciers. Like the Adams Glacier, the Lyman Glacier is characterized by deep crevasses and many icefalls as it cascades down from the summit ice cap. It is divided into two arms by a very rugged ridge at 10,200 ft and terminates at 7,400 ft. The Lava Glacier originates in a large cirque below the summit at about 10,000 ft, sandwiched between the North Cleaver on the west and the Lava Ridge to the east. It terminates at about 7,600 ft. The Lava and Lyman Glaciers are the source of the Muddy Fork of the Cispus River.</p><br>
<p>The total glacier area on Mount Adams decreased 49%, from 31.5 km&sup2; to 16.2 km&sup2, between 1904 and 2006, with the greatest loss occurring before 1949. Since 1949, the total glacier area has been relatively stable with a small amount of decline since the 1990s.</p><br>
<h3>Surrounding area</h3><br>
<p>Mount Adams is surrounded by a variety of other volcanic features and volcanoes. It stands near the center of a north-south trending volcanic field that is about 4 mi wide and 30 mi long, from just south of the Goat Rocks to Guler Mountain, the vent furthest south in the field. This field includes over 120 vents; about 25 of these are considered flank volcanoes of Mount Adams. The largest flank volcano is a basaltic shield volcano on Adams east base called Goat Butte. This structure is at least 150,000 years old.</p><br>
<p>Little Mount Adams is a symmetrical cinder cone on top of the Ridge of Wonders on Adams&#39; southeast flank.</p><br>
<p>Potato Hill is a cinder cone on Adams&#39; north side that was created in the late Pleistocene and stands 800 ft above its lava plain.</p><br>
<p>Lavas from its base flowed into the Cispus Valley where they were later modified by glaciers. At the 7,500 ft level on Adams&#39; south flank is South Butte. The lavas associated with this structure are all younger than Suksdorf Ridge but were emplaced before the end of the last ice age.</p><br>
<p>Several relatively young obvious lava flows exist in the area around Adams. Most of these flows are on the north side of the mountain and include the flow in the Mutton Creek area, Devils Garden, the Takh Takh Meadows Flow, and the much larger Muddy Fork Lava Flow to the north of Devils Garden. Only one obvious flow appears on the south slopes of Adams, the A. G. Aiken Lava Bed. Other smaller flows exist in various locations around the mountain as well.</p><br>
<p>The many other vents and volcanoes encompassed by the Mount Adams field include Glaciate Butte and Red Butte on the north, King Mountain, Meadow Butte, Quigley Butte, and Smith Butte on the south, with others interspersed throughout.</p><br>
<p>Located a few miles north of Adams is Goat Rocks Wilderness and the heavily eroded ruins of a stratovolcano that is much older than Adams. Unlike Adams, the Goat Rocks volcano was periodically explosive and deposited ash 2.5 million years ago that later solidified into 2,100 ft thick tuff layers.</p><br>
<p>In the area surrounding Mount Adams, many underground caves have formed around inactive lava vents. These caves are usually close to the surface and can be hundreds of feet deep and wide. A few of the more well known caves include the Cheese Cave, Ice Cave, and Deadhorse Caves. Cheese Cave has the largest bore of the caves near Adams with a diameter of 40 - and a length of over 2,000 ft. Ice cave, which is made up of several sections created by several sinkholes, has an ice section that is 120 ft long and 20 - in diameter and noted for its beautiful ice formations. From the same entrance, the tube continues another 500 ft to the west. Deadhorse Cave is a massive network of lava tubes. It the most complex lava tube cave in the United States with 14,441 ft of passage. These caves are all just outside of Trout Lake. These and many other caves in the Trout Lake area were at one time part of a huge system that originated at the Indian Heaven volcanic field. The most obscure caves around Adams are the Windholes on the southeast side near Island Cabin Campground.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Adams is made of several overlapping cones that together form an 18 mi diameter base which is elongated in its north-south axis and covers an area of 250 square miles. The volcano has a volume of 70 cumi placing it second only to Mount Shasta in that category among the Cascade stratovolcanoes. Mount Adams was created by the subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate, which is located just off the coast of the Pacific Northwest.</p><br>
<p>Mount Adams was born in the mid to late Pleistocene and grew in several pulses of mostly lava-extruding eruptions. Each eruptive cycle was separated from one another by long periods of dormancy and minor activity, during which, glaciers eroded the mountain to below 9,000 ft. Potassium-argon dating has identified three such eruptive periods; the first occurring 520,000 to 500,000 years ago, the second 450,000 years ago, and the third 40,000 to 10,000 years ago. Most of these eruptions and therefore most of the volcano, consist of lava flows with little tephra. The loose material that makes up much of Adams&#39; core is made of brecciated lava.</p><br>
<p>Andesite and basalt flows formed a 20 to 200 ft thick circle around the base of the Mount Adams, and filled existing depressions and ponded in valleys. Most of the volcano is made of andesite together with handful of dacite and pyroclastic flows which erupted early in Adams&#39; development. The present main cone was built when Adams was capped by a glacier system in the last ice age. The lava that erupted was shattered when it came in contact with the ice and the cone interior is therefore made of easily eroded andesite fragments. Since its construction, constant emissions of heat and caustic gases have transformed much of the rock into clays (mostly kaolinite), iron oxides, sulfur-rich compounds and quartz.</p><br>
<p>The present eruptive cone above 7,000 ft was constructed sometime between 40,000 to 10,000 years ago. Since that time the volcano has erupted at least ten times, generally from above 6,500 ft. One of the more recent flows issued from South Butte and created the 4.5 mi long by 0.5 mi wide A.G. Aiken Lava Bed. This flow looks young but has 3,500-year-old Mount St. Helens ash on it, meaning it is at least that old. Of a similar age are the Takh Takh Meadows and Muddy Fork lava flows. The lowest vent to erupt since the main cone was constructed is Smith Butte on the south slope of Adams. The last lava known to have erupted from Adams is an approximately 1000-year-old flow that emerged from a vent at about 8,200 ft on Battlement Ridge.</p><br>
<p>The Trout Lake Mudflow is the youngest large debris flow from Adams and the only large one since the end of the last Ice Age. The flow dammed Trout Creek and covered 25 mi of the White Salmon River valley. Impounded water later formed Trout Lake. The Great Slide of 1921 started close to the headwall of the White Salmon Glacier and was the largest avalanche on Adams in historic time. The slide fell about 1 mi and its debris covered about 1 square miles of the upper Salt Creek area. Steam vents were reported active at the slide source for three years, leading to speculation that the event was started with a small steam explosion. This was the only debris flow in Mount Adams&#39; recorded history, but there are five known lahars.</p><br>
<p>Since then, thermal anomalies (hot spots) and gas emissions (including hydrogen sulfide) have occurred especially on the summit plateau and indicate that Adams is dormant, not extinct. Future eruptions from Adams will probably follow patterns set by previous events and will thus be flank lava flows of andesite or basalt. Because the primary products were andesite, the eruptions that occur on Adams tend to have a low to moderate explosiveness and present less of a hazard than the violent eruptions of St. Helens and some of the other Cascade volcanoes. However, since the interior of the main cone is little more than a pile of fragmented lava and hydrothermally-altered rock, there is a potential for very large landslides and other debris flows.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, Adams experienced two slides seven weeks apart that were the largest slides in the Cascades, ignoring the catastrophic landslide eruption of Mount St. Helens, since a slide that occurred on Little Tahoma in 1963. The first occurred at the end of August and consisted of mainly snow and ice with some rock. It fell from a similar location and in a similar path to the slide of 1921. The second slide that year occurred in late October and originated high on Battlement Ridge just below The Castle. It consisted of mainly rock and flowed three miles down the Klickitat Glacier and the Big Muddy Creek streambed. Both slides were estimated to have moved as much as 6.5 e6cuyd of material.</p><br>
<p>The Indian Heaven volcanic field is located between St. Helens and Adams and within the Indian Heaven Wilderness. Its principal feature is an 18 mi long linear zone of shield volcanoes, cinder cones, and flows with volumes of up to 23 cumi with the highest peak, Lemei Rock. The shield volcanoes, which form the backbone of the volcanic field, are located on the northern and southern sides of the field. Mount St. Helens and Mount Adams are on the western and the eastern sides.</p><br>
<p>To the east, across the Klickitat River, lies the Simcoe Mountains volcanic field. This area contains many small shield volcanoes and cinder cones of mainly alkalic intraplate basalt with fractionated intermediate alkalic products, subordinate subalkaline mafic lavas, and several rhyolites as secondary products. There are about 205 vents that were active between 4.2 million and 600 thousand years ago.</p><br>
<p>Seismic activity around Adams is very low and it is one of the quietest volcanoes in Oregon and Washington. It is monitored by the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network and the Cascades Volcano Observatory via a seismic station on the southwest flank of the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Like many other Cascade volcanoes, Mount Adams offers many recreational activities, including mountain climbing, hiking and backpacking, berry picking, camping, boating, fishing, rafting, photography, wildlife viewing, and scenic driving among other things.</p><br>
<p>The 47,122 acre Mount Adams Wilderness along the west slope of Mount Adams offers an abundance of opportunities for hiking, backpacking, backcountry camping, mountain climbing and equestrian sports. Trails in the wilderness pass through dry east-side and moist-west side forests, offering spectacular views of Mt. Adams and its glaciers, tumbling streams, open alpine forests, parklands, and a variety of wildflowers speckled among lava flows and rimrocks. A Cascades Volcano Pass from the United States Forest Service (USFS) is required for activities above 7,000 ft from June through September.</p><br>
<p>On the north side, the Midway High Lakes Area, which lies mostly outside the wilderness area, is one of the more popular areas around Mount Adams. The area is made up of four large lakes, Council Lake, Takhlakh Lake, Ollalie Lake, and Horseshoe Lake; one small lake, Green Mountain Lake; and a group of small lakes, Chain of Lakes. The area offers developed and primitive camping as well as a good number of trails for hiking and backpacking. Most trails are open to horses and many outside the wilderness are open to motorcycles. More scenery similar to what is encountered in the Mount Adams Wilderness abounds. The area also offers boating and fishing opportunities on several of the lakes.</p><br>
<p>On the south side of Adams, the Morrison Creek area provides additional opportunities for hiking, backpacking, biking, and equestrian sports with several long loop trails. A few small primitive campgrounds exist in the area including the Wicky Creek Shelter. Generally, there are trailheads at these campgrounds.</p><br>
<p>On the southeast side of the mountain, the Mount Adams Recreation Area, another very popular area, offers activities such as hiking, camping, picnicking, and fishing. The area features Bird Creek Meadows, a popular picnic and hiking area noted for its outstanding display of wildflowers, and exceptional views of Mount Adams and its glaciers, as well as Mount Hood to the south. Some areas of the Yakama Indian Reservation are open for recreation, while other areas are open only to members of the tribe.</p><br>
<h3>Climbing</h3><br>
<p>Each year, thousands of outdoor enthusiasts attempt to summit Mount Adams. The false summits and broad summit plateau have disheartened many climbers as this inscription on a rock at Piker’s Peak indicates. “You are a piker if you think this is the summit. Don’t crab, the mountain was here first.” Crampons and ice axes are needed on many routes because of glaciers and the route’s steepness. Aside from crevasses on the more difficult glacier routes, the biggest hazard is the loose rocks and boulders which are easily dislodged and a severe hazard for climbers below. These falling rocks are especially dangerous for climbers on the precipitous east faces and the steep headwalls of the north and west sides. Routes in those areas should only be climbed early in the season under as ideal conditions as can be had. Other hazards faced by climbers on Adams include sudden storms and clouds, avalanches, altitude sickness, and inexperience. Climbing Mount Adams can be dangerous for a variety of reasons and people have died in pursuit of the summit while many others have had close calls.</p><br>
<h4>Routes</h4><br>
<p>There are 25 main routes to the summit with alternates of those main routes. They range in difficulty from the relatively easy non-technical South Spur (South Climb) route to the extremely challenging and dangerous Victory Ridge, Rusk Glacier Headwall, and Wilson Glacier Headwall routes up Roosevelt Cliff.</p><br>
<h3>Hiking</h3><br>
<p>While the summit is the main draw for many who visit Adams, many trails pass through the area around Mount Adams where visitors can find stunning vistas, local history, profuse displays of wildflowers, fantastic lava formations, picturesque waterfalls, and many other hidden secrets.</p><br>
<p>One such trail is the unofficially named “Round the Mountain Trail” that encircles Mount Adams and is approximately 35 mi long. It is called the “Round the Mountain Trail” unofficially because it is made up of three different named trails and an area where there is no trail. The 8 - section of the trail on the Yakama Indian Reservation may require special permits.</p><br>
<p>Many trails access the “Round the Mountain Trail” in the Mount Adams Wilderness. On the south, the Shorthorn Trail #16 leaves from near the Morrison Creek Campground and the South Climb Trail #183 starts at Cold Springs Trailhead/Campground and heads up the South Spur, the most popular climbing route to the summit. On the west side, there are three trails going up: the Stagman Ridge Trail #12, Pacific Crest Trail #2000, and the Riley Creek Trail #64. There are four trails providing access to the “Round the Mountain Trail” on north side: the Divide Camp Trail #112, Killen Creek Trail #113, Muddy Meadows Trail #13, and the Pacific Crest Trail again as it heads down the mountain to the north. These trails accessing the “Round the Mountain Trail” generally gain between 1,500 ft and 3,000 ft in between 3 mi and 6 mi. Trails are mostly snow-covered from early winter until early summer. Other popular trails in the Mount Adams Wilderness include the Lookingglass Lake Trail #9A, High Camp Trail #10, Salt Creek Trail #75, Crofton Butte Trail #73, and the Riley Connector Trail #64A.</p><br>
<p>In the Mount Adams Recreation Area, many of the trails are geared toward leisurely walks through beautiful scenery and are located in the Bird Creek Meadows area. There are many loop trails at Bird Creek Meadows, including the Trail of the Flowers #106 in the main picnic area. Trails travel through meadows and past cold mountain streams and waterfalls, including Crooked Creek Falls. Hikers can access the Hellroaring Overlook, where they can view Hellroaring Meadows, a glacial valley about 1,000 ft down from the viewpoint precipice. From here, hikers can gaze up 5,800 ft at Mount Adams, the Mazama Glacier, and various waterfalls tumbling off of high cliffs below the glaciers terminus. Little Mount Adams 6,821 ft, a symmetrical cinder cone on top of the Ridge of Wonders, rises from the northeast end of Hellroaring Meadow and the Hellroaring Creek valley. A trail used to ascend from Bench Lake at the bottom of the canyon to the east base of the peak, but this trail has recently been abandoned. To reach the top, hikers must traverse rocky terrain; and if they exist, user-made trails.</p><br>
<p>High Lakes Trail #116, the namesake of the Midway High Lakes Area, crosses the relatively flat area on the north side of the mountain following a trail the Yakama Native Americans used for picking huckleberries. Like many other trails around Adams, this trail has spectacular views of the mountain. Other trails, like the Takh Takh Meadows Trail #136, pass through picturesque meadows and old lava flows. One of the longest trails on the Gifford Pinchot, Boundary Trail #1, has its eastern terminus in the Midway High Lakes area at Council Lake. Other trails in the area include the Council Bluff Trail #117, Green Mountain Trail #110, and East Canyon Trail #265.</p><br>
<p>Several long trails pass through the Morrison Creek area on the south side of the mountain. The Snipes Mountain Trail #11 follows the eastern edge of the A. G. Aiken Lava Bed from the lower end for 6 miles to the Round the Mountain Trail. The Cold Springs Trail #72 follows the western edge for 4 miles. Other trails in the area include the Gotchen Trail #40, Morrison Creek Trail #39, and Pineway Trail #71.</p><br>
<h3>Camping</h3><br>
<p>Campgrounds near Mount Adams are open during the snow-free months of summer. Campgrounds in the area include the Takhlakh Lake Campground, offering views across the lake of Mount Adams; Olallie Lake; Horseshoe Lake; Killen Creek; Council Lake; and Keenes Horse Camp. Adams Fork Campground and Twin Falls Campground are located along the Lewis and Cispus Rivers. Most lakes within the Midway High Lakes Area offer scenic views of Mount Adams and its glaciers., Cat Creek Campground, and Twin Falls Campground are located nearer to Mount Adams and are just a few of the many campgrounds along the scenic Lewis and Cispus Rivers.</p><br>
<p>In the Morrison Creek area, there are three designated campgrounds: Morrison Creek Campground, Mount Adams Horse Camp, and the Wicky Creek Shelter. Many climbers use the Cold Springs Trailhead as a campground as well.</p><br>
<p>There are three campgrounds in the Mount Adams Recreation Area. A campground is located at Bird Lake, Mirror Lake, and Bench Lake. Bench Lake is the largest campground of the three and has excellent views up the Hellroaring Canyon.</p><br>
<p>Farther down the southeast slope of Adams, the Washington State Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has two campgrounds along Bird Creek: Bird Creek Campground and Island Cabin Campground. Island Cabin is also used in winter by snowmobilers.</p><br>
<p>Several of the campgrounds in the National Forest and all campgrounds in the Mount Adams Recreation Area require fees. The campgrounds on DNR lands require a Discover Pass.</p><br>
<h3>Winter recreation</h3><br>
<p>For winter recreation, there are a number of Washington state sno-parks on the south side that are popular with snowmobilers and cross-country skiers. There are three sno-parks on Mount Adams south slope: Snow King, Pineside, and Smith Butte Sno-parks. The south side of the mountain, especially the A.G. Aiken Lava Bed, is especially popular with snowmobilers and skiers. The Mount Adams Recreation Highway (FR 80) is plowed all the way to Pineside and Snow King Sno-parks at about 3,000 ft elevation for most of the year, as long as there is enough money in the Forest Services winter budget. Smith Butte Sno-park, at about 4,000 ft, is accessible in low-snow years. Most of the time, the road is not plowed all the way to Smith Butte. The Forest Service does this in order to not dry up the forest services snowplowing funds.</p><br>
<p>While the south side has several sno-parks near Adams, the north side has only one nearby, the Orr Creek Sno-park. This sno-park provides winter access to the Midway High Lakes Area. All the sno-parks in the area require a Washington state Sno-Park Permit.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Native American legends</h3><br>
<p>Native Americans in the area have composed many legends concerning the three "smoking mountains" that guard the Columbia River. According to the Bridge of the Gods tale, Wyeast (Mount Hood) and Pahto (Mount Adams; also called Paddo or Klickitat by native peoples) were the sons of the Great Spirit. The brothers both competed for the love of the beautiful La-wa-la-clough (Mount St. Helens). When La-wa-la-clough chose Pahto, Wyeast struck his brother hard so that Pahtos head was flattened and Wyeast took La-wa-la-clough from him (thus attempting to explain Adams&#39; squat appearance). Other versions of the story state that losing La-wa-la-clough caused Pahto such grief that he dropped his head in shame.</p><br>
<p>In a legend from the Klickitats, the chief of the gods, Tyhee Saghalie, came to The Dalles with his two sons. The sons quarreled about who would settle where. To settle the dispute, Saghalie shot an arrow to the west and to the north and told his sons to find them and to settle where the arrows had fallen. So one settled in the Willamette Valley and the other in the area between the Yakima and Columbia Rivers and they became the ancestors of the Multnomah and Klickitat tribes respectively. To separate the tribes, Saghalie raised the Cascade Mountains. He also created the “Bridge of the Gods" as a way for the tribes to meet with one another easily. A “witch-woman,” whose name was Loowit, lived on the bridge and had control of the only fire in the world. She wanted to give the tribes fire to improve their condition and Saghalie consented. He was so pleased with Loowit’s faithfulness that he offered Loowit whatever she wanted. She asked for youth and beauty and Saghalie granted her wish. Suitors came from near and far until finally she could not decide between Klickitat and Wiyeast. Klickitat and Wiyeast went to war over the matter until finally Sahalie decided to punish them for creating such chaos. He broke the Bridge of the Gods and put the three lovers to death. However, in order to honor their beauty, he raised up three mountains: Wiyeast (Hood), Klickitat (Adams), and Loowit (St. Helens).</p><br>
<p>In a similar legend from the Klickitats, there was a large inland sea between the Cascades and the Rocky Mountains. The Native Americans lived on the sea and each year they would hold two large powwows at Mount Multnomah, one in the spring and one in the fall. The demigod Koyoda Spielei lived among them and settled disputes among the living things of the earth, including the mountains Pa-toe (Adams) and Yi-east (Hood), sons of the Great Spirit Soclai Tyee. For many years, peace prevailed over the land. Then a beautiful squaw mountain moved to the valley between Pa-toe and Yi-east. She fell in love with Yi-east, but liked to flirt with Pa-toe. This caused the two mountains to quarrel with each other and it quickly escalated into an all out brawl. Ignoring Koyoda’s calls for peace, they belched forth smoke and ash and threw hot rocks at each other. Some time later, they paused for a rest and discovered the catastrophe they had caused. The forests and meadows had been burnt to the ground and many animals and other living things had been killed. The earth had been shaken so severely that a hole had been created in the mountains and the sea had drained away and the Bridge of the Gods was formed. The squaw mountain had hid herself in a cave during the battle and because they could no longer find her, they were about to resume fighting. However, while they had been fighting, Koyoda went to Soclai and told him what was happening. Soclai arrived in time to stop them from resuming their quarrel. He decreed that the squaw mountain should remain in the cave forever and the Bridge of the Gods was to be a covenant of peace between the mountains that he would cause to fall if they ever resumed their quarrel. He also placed an ugly old woman, known as Loo-wit, as a mountain to guard the bridge and remind the brothers that beauty is never permanent. After many years, the signs of the great battle and the evidence of the inland sea had disappeared and there was happiness and contentment over the earth. The squaw mountain wished to come out of her cave and grew very lonely. In an effort to ease her loneliness, Soclai sent the Bats, a tribe of beautiful birds, to be her companions. Yi-east eventually learned that the Bats were her guardians and carried out secret communication with the squaw mountain through them. He befriended Loo-wit and crossed the bridge at night to meet with the squaw mountain. One night, he stayed too long and had to hurry to get back to his proper place. He caused the ground to shake so much in his haste that a large rock fell and blocked the entrance to the cave. When Soclai found this, he was furious with the Bats and punished them by turning them into bats that are seen today. He allowed the squaw mountain to remain out of the cave on her promise to be good, but would not allow her and Yi-east to be married, fearing the inevitable quarrel that might start again. He did promise to look for a mate for Pa-toe, hoping this would initiate a lasting peace. However, because of his many duties, he forgot this promise and the two mountains were only held in check by his threats. Eventually, when Soclai was in another part of the world, they resumed their quarrel and created chaos again. Their violence broke the Bridge of the Gods and destroyed the landscape again. Loo-wit, in her attempts to stop the two brothers, was badly burned and scarred; and when the bridge collapsed, she fell with it. Finally, Pa-toe won the battle and Yi-east admitted defeat. Soclai returned from where he had been, but he was too late to avert the disaster. He found Loo-wit and because she had been faithful in her guardianship, he rewarded her by giving her her greatest desire, youth and beauty. Having received this gift, she moved to the west side of the Cascades and remains there to this day as Mount St. Helens. Since Pa-toe won the battle, the squaw mountain belonged to him. She was heart broken, but took her place at his side. She soon fell at his feet and into a deep sleep from which she never awoke. She is now known as Sleeping Beauty. Pa-toe became so sad that he caused her deep sleep, he lowered his own head in remorse.</p><br>
<p>The Yakamas also have a legend attempting to explain Adams’ squat appearance. Long ago, the Sun was a man and he had five wives who were mountains: Plash-Plash (the Goat Rocks), Wahkshum (the Simcoe Mountains), Pahto (Adams), Rainier, and St. Helens. Because she was the third wife to be greeted by the Sun in the morning, Pahto became jealous. She broke down both Plash-Plash and Wahkshum, but left Rainier and St. Helens alone. She was happy that she was now the first to be greeted, but wanted more, so she crossed the Columbia and took plants and animals from the mountains there. The other mountains were afraid of her, but Klah Klahnee (the Three Sisters) convinced Wyeast (Hood) to confront Pahto. Wyeast initially tried being nice, but Pahto would have none of it. So Wyeast hit her head and knocked it off, creating Devils Garden. Wyeast then shared what Pahto had taken with the rest of the mountains. After this, Pahto became mean and she would send thunderstorms, heavy rain, and snow to the valleys below. The Great Spirit had been watching all this time and came to Pahto. He gave her a new head in the form of White Eagle and his son Red Eagle and he reminded her that she was his daughter. Pahto repented and promised to stop being mean and greedy.</p><br>
<p>In many of the legends of the Cascade Mountains, there are thunderbirds that live on them and Adams is no exception. This particular thunderbird was named Enumtla and he terrorized the inhabitants of the land. Speelyi, the Klickitat coyote god, came along one day and they implored him to do something. Speelyi transformed himself into a feather and waited. It did not take long for Enumtla to see the feather and investigate. Being suspicious, he thundered at the feather with no effect. He paused and suddenly the magic feather let loose a terrific volley of thunder and lightning and stunned Enumtla. Speelyi then managed to overpower Enumtla and decreed that the thunderbird could no longer terrify the people, could only thunder on hot days, and could not destroy with lightning.</p><br>
<p>Several other tribes have legends involving battles and disagreements between the great peaks. The Cowlitz and Chehalis have a legend where Rainier and St. Helens were female mountains and quarreled over Adams, the male mountain. In a different legend from the Cowlitz, St. Helens was the man and Pahto (Adams) and Takhoma (Rainier) were his wives and the two wives quarreled with each other. A thunderbird legend from the Yakamas has a terrific battle between the thunderbird, Enumklah, and his five wives, Tahoma (Rainier), Pahto (Adams), Ah-kee-kun (Hood), Low-we-lat-Klah (St. Helens), and Simcoe. Pahto and Tahoma were badly beaten, Ah-kee-kun and Low-we-lat-Klah escaped without injury, and Simcoe suffered the greatest injury for starting the battle.</p><br>
<h3>Exploration</h3><br>
<p>Adams was known to the Native Americans as Pahto (with various spellings) and Klickitat. In various tribal languages (Plateau Penutian, Chinookan, Salishan), Pahto means high up, very high, standing up, or high sloping mountain. The Klickitat name is of Klickitat origin and comes from the Chinookan for beyond.</p><br>
<p>In 1805, on the journey westward down the Columbia, the Lewis and Clark Expedition recorded seeing the mountain; noting that it was “a high mountain of emence hight covered with snow” and thought it “perhaps the highest pinnacle in America.” They initially misidentified it as Mount St. Helens, which had been previously discovered and named by George Vancouver. On the return journey in 1806, they recorded seeing both, but did not give Adams a name, only calling it “a very high humped mountain”. This is the earliest recorded sighting of the volcano by European explorers.</p><br>
<p>For several decades after Lewis and Clark sighted the mountain, people continued to get Adams confused with St. Helens, due in part to their somewhat similar appearance and similar latitude. In the 1830s, Hall J. Kelley led a campaign to rename the Cascade Range as the Presidents Range and rename each major Cascade mountain after a former President of the United States. Mount Adams was not known to Kelley and was thus not in his plan. Mount Hood, in fact, was designated by Kelley to be renamed after President John Adams and St. Helens was to be renamed after George Washington. In a mistake or deliberate change by mapmaker and proponent of the Kelley plan, Thomas J. Farnham, the names for Hood and St. Helens were interchanged. And, likely because of the confusion about which mountain was St. Helens, he placed the Mount Adams name north of Mount Hood and about 40 mi east of Mount St. Helens. By what would seem sheer coincidence, there was in fact a large mountain there to receive the name. Since the mountain had no official name at the time, Kelleys name stuck even though the rest of his plan failed. However, it was not official until 1853, when the Pacific Railroad Surveys, under the direction of Washington Territory governor Isaac I. Stevens, determined its location, described the surrounding countryside, and placed the name on the map.</p><br>
<p>Since its discovery by explorers, the height of Adams has also been under debate. The topographer for the Pacific Railroad Surveys, Lt. Johnson K. Duncan, and George Gibbs, ethnologist and naturalist for the expedition, thought it was about the same height as St. Helens. Its large, uneven size apparently contributed to the underestimation. The Northwest Boundary Survey listed Adams as having an elevation of 9,570 ft while a later US Coast and Geodetic Survey gave it an elevation of 11,906 ft. The height was more closely determined in 1895 by members of the Mazamas mountaineering club, William A. Gilmore, Professor Edgar McClure, and William Gladstone Steel. Using a boiling point thermometer, mercurial barometer, and an aneroid barometer, they determined the elevation to be 12,255, respectively. None of these numbers were used on any map because that same year, 1895, the US Geological Survey (USGS), using a triangulation method, also measured the height of several mountains in the Cascades and they measured Adams as having an elevation of 12,470 ft. The USGS further refined their measurement sometime in late 1909 or early 1910 to 12,307 ft and again in 1970 to 12,276 ft for the release of the Mount Adams East 1:24000 quadrangle. The current elevation, 12,281 ft, is generated by the new method, NAVD88, for calculating altitudes.</p><br>
<p>Claude Ewing Rusk, a local settler and mountaineer, was one of those most familiar with Adams and he was instrumental in many of the names given to places around the mountain. In 1890, he, his mother Josie, and his sister Leah completed a circuit of the mountain and explored, to some extent, all ten of its principle glaciers. This was the first recorded circuit of Adams by a woman and likely the first recorded circuit by anyone. While they were on the east side, they named Avalanche Valley. Later, in 1897, after they had completed an ascent of Adams, they went to the Ridge of Wonders and his mother, awestruck by the scene, named it as such.</p><br>
<p>No detailed descriptions of Adams or its glaciers existed until Professor William Denison Lyman and Horace S. Lyman published descriptions of three of its glaciers and various other features of the southern flanks of the mountain in 1886. The White Salmon/Avalanche, Mazama, and Klickitat Glaciers were those described. They also postulated Adams to be the source of some of the Columbia River basalt flows. They thought that Adams was within what was originally an enormous caldera that was about one hundred miles across. The southern boundary of this enormous caldera was the anticline ridge that forms the southern border of the Glenwood Valley. Modern geology has since dismissed this theory. From information collected on an outing of the Mazamas in 1895, Professor Lyman expanded his descriptions of those three glaciers in 1896. Adams was finally properly surveyed in 1901, when Rusk led noted geologist/glaciologist Harry Fielding Reid to Adams&#39; remote location. Reid conducted the first systematic study of the volcano and also named its most significant glaciers, Pinnacle, Adams, Lava, Lyman, and Rusk with suggestions from Rusk. He also named Castle Rock (The Castle), Little Mount Adams, and Red Butte. Reid noted that it was apparent that the glaciers of Adams had been significantly larger during the Little Ice Age. The geologic history of Adams would have to wait another 80 years before it was fully explored.</p><br>
<p>On the 1895 Mazamas expedition, the first heliography between several of the peaks of the Cascades was attempted with some success. A party on Mount Hood was able to communicate back and forth with the party on Mount Adams, but the parties on Rainier, Baker, Jefferson, and Diamond Peak were not successful, mainly because of dense smoke and logistical problems.</p><br>
<p>The first ascent of Mount Adams was in 1854 by Andrew Glenn Aiken, Edward Jay Allen, and Andrew J. Burge. While most sources list the aforementioned names, at least one substitutes Colonel Benjamin Franklin Shaw for Andrew Burge. Their route was likely up the North Cleaver because that summer they were improving a newly designated military road that passes through Naches Pass, which is to the north of Adams.</p><br>
<p>While the north and south faces of Adams are climbed easily, the west and east faces of the mountain were deemed impossible to climb because of the steep cliffs and ice cascades. To some, this assumption was a challenge and for years, C. E. Rusk searched for a way to climb the east face. On one of these excursions, in 1919, Rusk named the Wilson Glacier, Victory Ridge, and the Roosevelt Cliff. It was on this trip that Rusk decided that the Castle held the easiest route up. In 1921, 67 years after the first ascent of Adams, a group from the Cascadians mountaineering club, led by Rusk, completed the first ascent of the precipitous east face of the mountain. Their route took them up the Rusk Glacier, onto Battlement Ridge, up and over The Castle, and across the vast, heavily crevassed eastern side of the summit ice cap. One of the party, Edgar E. Coursen, said that the route was “thrilling to the point of extreme danger.” Others in the party were Wayne E. Richardson, Clarence Truitt, Rolland Whitmore, Robert E. Williams, and Clarence Starcher. Three years later, in 1924, a group of three men from the Mazamas finally climbed the west face of Adams. This route is straightforward, but made difficult by icefalls, mud slips, and easily started rock avalanches.</p><br>
<p>Some of the caves around Adams were subject to commercial ventures. In the 1860s, ice was gathered from the Ice Cave and shipped to Portland and The Dalles in years of short supply elsewhere. Oddly, a “claim” to the cave using mining laws was used in order to gain exclusive access to the ice. Cheese Cave was used for potato storage in the 1930s and later was home to the Guler Cheese Company, which produced, for a number of years in the 1950s, a bleu cheese similar to the Roquefort produced in Roquefort-sur-Soulzon, France. A legend from the Klickitats regarding the formation of the caves, involves a man and his wife who were of gigantic stature. The man left his wife and married a mouse, which became a woman. His wife was furious and because she threatened to kill the man and the “mouse-wife,” they hid farther up the mountain at a lake. The man’s wife assumed they were underground and began digging for them. In the process, she dug out the many caves in the area. Eventually, she reached the place where they were and the man allowed her to kill the “mouse-wife” to save his own life. Her blood colored the rocks of the lake red and the place was known as Hool-hool-se, which is from the Native American word for mouse. Eventually, the wife killed the man as well and lived alone in the mountains.</p><br>
<p>Adams was the feature of a 1915 documentary “When the Mountains Call.” This film documented the journey from Portland to the summit and showed many of the sights along the way.</p><br>
<h3>Forest Service operations</h3><br>
<p>Adams and the lands surrounding it were initially set aside as part of the Mount Rainier Forest Reserve under the Department of the Interior in 1897. Eight years later, in 1905, the Bureau of Forestry, later the Forest Service, was created under the Department of Agriculture and all the Forest Reserves were transferred to the new agency. In 1907, the Forest Reserves were renamed to National Forests and in 1908, the Rainier National Forest was divided among three Forests. The southern half became the Columbia National Forest. The name was changed in 1949 to honor the first Chief of the Forest, Gifford Pinchot. In 1964, the lands around Mount Adams were set aside as a wilderness.</p><br>
<p>Adams is home to the oldest building on the Gifford Pinchot National Forest, the Gotchen Creek Guard Station just south of the A. G. Aiken Lava Bed. Built in 1909, it served as the administrative headquarters of the Mount Adams District until 1916. It was built along a major grazing trail to allow for easy monitoring of the thousands of sheep grazed on the lower slopes. Later, in the 1940s, as the amount of grazing decreased, the station housed the Forest Guards responsible for the area. In 2008, it was wrapped in protective foil as a precautionary method to shield it from a large wildfire, the Cold Springs Fire, although the fire did not come near enough to burn it. Wildfires in 2012 (Cascade Creek Fire) and 2015 (Cougar Creek Fire) also required this precaution, and neither of them came close enough either.</p><br>
<p>In 1916, the Forest Service began preparations to establish the highest fire lookout in the Pacific Northwest at the top of Adams. This was part of an endeavor that began in 1915 on Mount Hood and 1916 on St. Helens The idea was to situate lookouts far above all low-lying hills and mountains to give the lookouts an immense area for observation without obstructions. Being at 12,281 ft, the new lookout would also be the third highest in the world and still is. In 1917, building materials were moved to the base of the mountain and in 1918, Dan Lewis packed the building materials and lumber to the lower portion of Suksdorf Ridge. The following summer was spent hauling the building materials to the top. The four men assigned the job, Arthur “Art” Jones, Adolph Schmid, Julius Wang, and Jessie Robbins, had a difficult task ahead of them until they engineered a way to quickly and, for the most part, safely bring the building materials up the slope using a deadman/rope technique. Construction of the standard D-6 building with a ¼ second story cupola began in the summer of 1920 and was completed a year later by Art, Adolph, James Huffman and Joe Guler. It was manned as a lookout during the last year of its construction through 1924. After which it was abandoned because of the difficulties of operating a lookout that high and because lower level clouds, smoke, and haze frequently and effectively blocked the view of the lower elevations. Arthur Jones was likely the one person most involved in the project, spending five seasons on the mountain. Others who worked on the project or staffed the lookout include Rudolph Deitrich, the last lookout, and Chaffin “Chafe” Johnson.</p><br>
<p>After the lookout at the summit was abandoned, the Forest Service changed strategies from a few lookouts very high up to many lookouts on lower peaks. They placed many lookouts around Adams including one on the southwest slopes of Adams at Madcat Meadows, one on Goat Butte, one on Council Bluff above Council Lake, and many other places farther from the mountain. Eventually these lookouts became obsolete as airplanes became the cheaper method to spot fires. Most all of these lookouts have since been abandoned and most all have been removed or left to disintegrate. One, Burley Mountain, is staffed every summer and another, Red Mountain, was restored in 2010 and decisions regarding its future are pending. Two lookouts remain nearby on the Yakama Indian Reservation. One, Satus Peak, is staffed every season and the other, Signal Peak, is staffed during periods of high fire danger.</p><br>
<h3>Sulfur mine</h3><br>
<p>In 1929, Wade Dean formed the Glacier Mining Company and filed mining claims to the sulfur on Adams&#39; 210 acre summit plateau. Beginning in 1932, the first assessment work was done. The initial test pits were dug by hand, but this proved to be dangerous work and an alternative was needed to drill through the up to 210 ft thick ice cap more safely. The answer was a diamond tipped drilling machine, but, being a heavy machine, it could not be carried up the newly completed horse and mule trail like other supplies. So it winched itself up the mountain using a series of deadman anchors. 168 pack string trips led by John Perry were made over the course of the mining activities. The crew stayed in the abandoned Forest Service lookout, a tight fit for the usual eight men and their equipment. This problem was alleviated somewhat in the later years of the project when an enclosed 8 by lean-to was added to the cabin. Another smaller lean-to was added later. The conditions and weather above 12,000 ft could be incredibly variable with the highest temperature of 110 &deg;F recorded 12 hours before the lowest temperature of -48 &deg;F. This preliminary mining continued for several years until 1937 when the last crew worked from the summit lookout. In the years following, Dean periodically attempted to restart this venture and in 1946, he and Lt. John Hodgkins made several landings by airplane on the summit ice cap. Although sulfur was found, the amount of the ore that was able to be mined in a season was only enough to make up the cost of getting it off the mountain and was not enough to be competitive. Part of this stemmed from Dean’s desire that if operations were expanded, an ore as well as passenger transport system was needed, and his desire that Adams not be significantly scarred by the operation. The project was fully abandoned in 1959. Adams is the only large Cascade volcano to have its summit exploited by commercial miners.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Because of its remote location and relative inaccessibility, climate records are poor. The nearest weather station, Potato Hill, has only been measuring precipitation since 1982 and temperatures since 1989. Temperature and precipitation records from Glenwood and Trout Lake, both considerably lower in elevation and farther from the mountain, are more complete and go back further, 1948 at Glenwood and 1924 at Trout Lake. Snowfall records from the three snow stations on Adams cover a number of years but are discontinuous and are limited to the northwest side. The Potato Hill station was monitored monthly from 1950-1976 and was replaced in 1982 with the automated precipitation sensor. It was upgraded in 1983 to report snow water equivalent and it was upgraded again in 2006 to report snow depth. The Council Pass station was monitored monthly from 1956-1978 and the Divide Meadow station was monitored monthly from 1962-1978. Divide Meadow was the most representative of the snow depth on the west side of Adams because it was the highest station on the flanks of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Like the rest of the high Cascade mountains, Adams receives a large amount of snow, but because it lies farther east than many of its Washington compatriots, it receives less than one might expect for a mountain of its height. Although snowfall is not measured directly, it can be estimated from the snow depth; and since the Potato Hill station was upgraded to report daily snow depth in 2006, there has been an average of 215 in of snow every year. Also since 2006, the most snow to fall in a day was 28 in (Feb 26, 2011), in a month, 92 in (Dec 2007), and in a year, 288 in (2012).</p><br>
<p>By April, there is, on average, 90 in of snow on the ground at Potato Hill. The average monthly snow depth at Potato Hill has not changed much from the records collected from 1950-1976 with only a small decrease in January, February, and May and a small increase in March and April. Records from Council Pass and Divide Meadow also show depth increasing throughout the winter, peaking in April. These two stations average a greater amount of snow than Potato Hill, with an average of 102 in at Council Pass and 141 in at Divide Meadow by April. Divide Meadow generally receives the most snow with a record depth of 222 in in 1972. The snowpack at Potato Hill starts building in late October to early November and the last of the snow generally melts by the beginning of June, but occasionally lingers into July.</p><br>
<p>Temperatures and precipitation can be highly variable around Adams, due in part to its geographic location astride the Cascade Crest, which gives it more of a continental influence than some of its neighbors. At Potato Hill, December is the coldest month with an average high of 45 &deg;F and an average low of 5 &deg;F. July is the hottest month with an average high of 84 &deg;F and an average low of 33 &deg;F. The highest recorded temperature is 91 &deg;F in 1998 and the lowest is -16 &deg;F in 2010. Average annual precipitation is 67.1 in with January being the wettest month at 10.3 in, slightly more than November and December. Potato Hill averages 159 precipitation days with 51 snow days. In Trout Lake, the coldest month is January with an average high of 36 &deg;F and an average low of 22 &deg;F. July is the hottest month with an average high of 83 &deg;F and an average low of 48 &deg;F. The highest recorded temperature is 108 &deg;F in 1939 and the lowest is -26 &deg;F in 1930. Average annual precipitation is 43.7 in with January being the wettest month with 8.2 in. In Glenwood, the coldest month is December with an average high of 37 &deg;F and an average low of 23 &deg;F. August is the hottest month with an average high of 81 &deg;F and an average low of 42 &deg;F. The highest recorded temperature is 101 &deg;F in 1994 and the lowest is -27 &deg;F in 1983. Average annual precipitation is 29.9 in with December being the wettest month with 6 in.</p><br>
<p>The climate of Adams places it and the immediate area in two different level three eco-regions: the Cascades eco-region and the Eastern Cascades Slopes and Foothills eco-region. Within these two eco-regions are five level four eco-regions: the Western Cascade Mountain Highlands, Cascade Crest Montane Forest, and Cascades Subalpine/Alpine within the Cascades eco-region and the Yakima Plateau and Slopes and Grand Fir Mixed Forest within the Eastern Cascades Slopes and Foothills eco-region. Adams is unique among the Washington volcanoes in that it is in two level three eco-regions as well as being the only one within the Cascade Crest Montane Forest.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The climate of Adams gives it a large amount of diversity within its forests. On the west side, down in the lower valleys, grand fir and Douglas fir dominate the forest with Western hemlock and Western red cedar as well. On the east side, Douglas fir and ponderosa pine are dominant with some patches of dense lodgepole pine. Western hemlock and Western red cedar also occur, but are limited to creek and river bottoms. Grand fir is present on sites with better moisture retention. At middle elevations on the west side, grand fir is increasingly replaced by Pacific silver fir and noble fir; and on the east side, lodgepole becomes much more prevalent. Above a certain elevation, lodgepole pine also appears in areas on the west side as well. As elevation increases further, the forest changes again with subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, and mountain hemlock becoming the dominant tree species on all sides of the mountain. Eventually, the last trees to disappear from the mountainside are the highly cold tolerant whitebark pine and mountain hemlock. Other conifers, 18 species in all, that play a lesser role than the dominant species are Western white pine, Sitka spruce, Western larch, Pacific yew, Alaska cedar, and mountain juniper. Adams is also home to many hardwoods as well including the tree species big leaf maple, Oregon white oak, quaking aspen, black cottonwood, and red alder. Large shrubs/small trees include the dwarf birch, Suksdorf’s hawthorn, California hazelnut, bitter cherry, vine maple, Douglas maple, and blue elderberry and contribute to a vibrant fall display.</p><br>
<p>Big Tree, (also known as Trout Lake Big Tree), is a massive ponderosa pine tree in majestic, old growth pine and fir forests at the southern base of Mount Adams. The tree rises to a lofty 202 ft with a diameter of 7 ft, and is one of the largest known ponderosa pine trees in the world. As of 2015, however, the tree has been stressed by attacks from pine beetles.</p><br>
<p>The large diversity of the flora around Adams is even more apparent in the herbage and, including the tree and shrub species previously mentioned, totals at least 843 species. This is more than any other mountain in the Pacific Northwest. The first extensive list of flora from the area around Mount Adams was published in 1896 by William Suksdorf and Thomas Howell and listed 480 species. Suksdorf had taken it upon himself to catalogue as many species around Adams as he could and the list was the result of his extraordinary collection efforts. This was the most complete list for over a century and has finally been updated by David Beik and Susan McDougall to the current 843 species with hundreds of additional species listed. Adams is home to many rare plants including tall bugbane, Suksdorf’s monkeyflower, northern microseris (Microceris borealis), Brewer’s potentilla (Potentilla breweri), and mountain blue-eyed grass. The plant diversity is most evident in the many meadows and wetlands on the flanks of Adams. The notable Bird Creek Meadows includes in its famous display, magenta paintbrush, arrowleaf ragwort, penstemons, lupines, monkeyflowers, mountain heathers, and many others. In wetlands, generally at lower elevations, one can find bog blueberry, highbush cranberry, sundew, purple cinquefoil, and flatleaf bladderwort, in addition to many sedges and rushes. Subalpine and alpine meadows and parklands, while not as prolific as the meadows and wetlands of lower elevations, have a beautiful display as well with partrigefoot, Cascade rockcress, subalpine buttercup, Sitka valerian, alpine false candytuft, elegant Jacob’s ladder, and various buckwheats as prominent players.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>Adams is home to a fairly wide variety of animal species. Several hoofed mammals call the mountain home: mountain goats, Roosevelt elk, black-tailed deer, and mule deer. Large carnivores include cougar, black bear, coyote, bobcat, and the Cascade mountain fox, an endemic subspecies of the red fox. There have also been sightings of wolverine and unconfirmed reports of wolves. Many small mammals also make Adams their home. Squirrels and chipmunks are numerous throughout the forest. Douglas squirrels, least chipmunks, and Townsend&#39;s chipmunks live throughout the forest with golden-mantled ground squirrels and California ground squirrels occupying drier areas as well. These squirrels are preyed upon by the elusive and secretive pine martens that also call Adams their home. Hoary marmots and pikas make their home on open rocky areas at any altitude while the elusive snowshoe hare lives throughout the forest.</p><br>
<p>The profusion of wildflowers attracts a large number of pollinators including butterflies such as Apollos, Melitaea, Coenonympha, snowflakes, painted ladies, garden whites, swallowtails, skippers, admirals, sulphurs, blues, and fritillaries.</p><br>
<p>Many birds call Adams home or a stopover on their migration routes. Songbirds include three species of chickadee, two kinglets, several thrushes, warblers, sparrows, and finches. One unique songbird to the high elevations is the gray-crowned rosy finch, who can be found far up the mountain, well above the tree line. Raptors that live in the forest and meadows include Accipiters, red-tailed hawks, golden and bald eagles, ospreys, great horned owls, and falcons. The many snags around the mountain provide forage and nesting habitat for the many species of woodpeckers that live there including the hairy woodpecker, downy woodpecker, and white-headed woodpecker. Jays such as the Stellers jay and gray jay are common and the gray jay is an especially familiar character, as they will boldly investigate campers and hikers. Another familiar character of the higher elevation forests is the Clarks nutcracker with its distinctive call. Swallows and swifts are frequently seen flying just above the water of lakes and some larger streams. Common mergansers and several other species of water birds can be found on many of the lakes as well. The American dipper with its unique way of bobbing about along streams and then ducking into the water is a common sight. Several grouse species, the sooty, spruce, and ruffed grouse and the white-tailed ptarmigan, call the forests and the lower slopes of the mountain home.</p><br>
<p>The streams and lakes around Adams offer a number of fish for the angler to seek out. The two most common species, eastern brook trout and rainbow trout (Columbia River redband trout), are in nearly every lake and stream. Brown trout and cutthroat trout appear in most of the lakes in the High Lakes Area and three lakes are home to tiger trout. All the lakes in the High Lakes Area are periodically replanted with varying species of trout. Bull trout can be found in the upper reaches of the Klickitat and Lewis Rivers. Westslope cutthroat trout can be found the Klickitat and cutthroat trout are found in the Lewis River and upper reaches of the Cispus River. Whitefish can be found in the Klickitat, Lewis, and Cispus Rivers. Because of barriers to fish passage (dams on the Lewis and Cowlitz Rivers, falls on the White Salmon River), the only river where anadromous fishes can reach the streams around Adams is the Klickitat River. Chinook salmon, coho salmon, and steelhead, in several different runs, make for the upper reaches of the Klickitat, including those around Adams, every year.</p><br>
<p>The Conboy Lake National Wildlife Refuge lies at the base of Mount Adams. The refuge covers 6,500 acres and contains conifer forests, grasslands, and shallow wetlands. Protected wildlife includes deer, elk, beaver, coyote, otter, small rodents, bald eagle, greater sandhill crane, and the Oregon spotted frog. It and the lands nearby are home to several rare and threatened species of plants and animals including the previously mentioned Oregon spotted frog and greater sandhill crane, Suksdorfs milk vetch, rosy owls-clover, Oregon coyote thistle, Mardon skipper, peregrine falcon, and Western gray squirrel.</p><br>
<p>The Chihuahuan Desert is a desert and ecoregion designation covering parts of Mexico and the United States. It occupies much of West Texas, parts of the middle and lower Rio Grande Valley and the lower Pecos Valley in New Mexico, and a portion of southeastern Arizona, as well as the central and northern portions of the Mexican Plateau. It is bordered on the west by the extensive Sierra Madre Occidental range, along with northwestern lowlands of the Sierra Madre Oriental range. On the Mexican side, it covers a large portion of the state of Chihuahua, along with portions of Coahuila, north-eastern Durango, the extreme northern part of Zacatecas, and small western portions of Nuevo León. With an area of about 362,000 km&sup2, it is the third largest desert of the Western Hemisphere and the second largest in North America, after the Great Basin Desert.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Several larger mountain ranges include the Sierra Madre, the Sierra del Carmen, the Organ Mountains, the Franklin Mountains, the Sacramento Mountains, the Chisos Mountains, the Guadalupe Mountains, and the Davis Mountains. These create "sky islands" of cooler, wetter, climates adjacent to, or within the desert, and such elevated areas have both coniferous and broadleaf woodlands, including forests along drainages and favored exposures. The Sandia-Manzano Mountains, the Magdalena-San Mateo Mountains, and the Gila Region border the Chihuahuan Desert at their lower elevations.</p><br>
<p>There are a few urban areas within the desert: the largest is Ciudad Juárez with almost two million inhabitants; Chihuahua, Saltillo, and Torreón; then the US cities of El Paso and Albuquerque. Las Cruces and Roswell are among the other significant cities in this ecoregion. Monterrey and Santa Fe are located near the Chihuahuan desert.</p><br>
<p>According to the World Wide Fund for Nature the Chihuahuan Desert may be the most biologically diverse desert in the world as measured by species richness or endemism. The region has been badly degraded, mainly due to grazing. Many native grasses and other species have become dominated by woody native plants, including creosote bush and mesquite, due to overgrazing and other urbanization. The Mexican wolf, once abundant, has been wiped out.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The desert is mainly a rain shadow desert because the two main mountain ranges covering the desert, the Sierra Madre Occidental to the west and the Sierra Madre Oriental to the east block most moisture from the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico respectively. Climatically, the desert has a dry climate with only one rainy season in the summer and smaller amounts of precipitation in early winter. Owing to its inland position and higher elevation than the Sonoran Desert to the west, mostly varying from 600 to 1675 m in altitude, the desert has a slightly milder climate in the summer (though usually daytime June temperatures are in the range of 35 to 40 C) and cool or cold winters with occasional frosts. The average annual temperature in the desert is 24 &deg;C, which varies with altitude. The hottest temperatures in the desert occur in lower elevation areas and in valleys. Northern areas have more severe winters than the southern portion and can receive snowstorms. The mean annual precipitation for the Chihuahuan Desert is 235 mm with a range of approximately 150 –, although it receives more precipitation than other warm desert ecoregions. Nearly two-thirds of the arid zone stations have annual totals between 225 and. Snowfall is scant except at the higher elevation edges. The desert is fairly young, existing for only 8000 years.</p><br>
<h2>Flora/Fauna</h2><br>
<p>Creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) is the dominant plant species on gravelly and occasional sandy soils in valley areas within the Chihuahuan Desert. The other species it is found with depends on factors such as the soil, altitude, and degree of slope. Viscid acacia (Acacia neovernicosa), and tarbush (Flourensia cernua) dominate northern portions, as does broom dalea (Psorothamnus scoparius) on sandy soils in western portions. Yucca and Opuntia species are abundant in foothill edges and the central third, while Arizona rainbow cactus (Echinocereus polyacanthus) and Mexican fire-barrel cactus (Ferocactus pilosus) inhabit portions near the US–Mexico border.</p><br>
<p>Herbaceous plants, such as bush muhly (Muhlenbergia porteri), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), gypsum grama (B. breviseta), and hairy grama (B. hirsuta), are dominant in desert grasslands and near the mountain edges including the Sierra Madre Occidental. Lechuguilla (Agave lechuguilla), honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa), Opuntia macrocentra and Echinocereus pectinatus are the dominant species in western Coahuila. Ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens), lechuguilla, and Yucca filifera are the most common species in the southeastern part of the desert. Candelilla (Euphorbia antisyphilitica), Mimosa zygophylla, Acacia glandulifera and lechuguilla are found in areas with well-draining, shallow soils. The shrubs found near the Sierra Madre Oriental are exclusively lechuguilla, guapilla (Hechtia glomerata), Queen Victoria&#39;s agave (Agave victoriae-reginae), sotol (Dasylirion spp.), and barreta (Helietta parvifolia), while the well-developed herbaceous layer includes grasses, legumes and cacti.</p><br>
<p>Grasslands comprise 20% of this desert and are often mosaics of shrubs and grasses. They include purple three-awn (Aristida purpurea), black grama (Bouteloua eriopoda), and sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula). Early Spanish explorers reported encountering grasses that were "belly high to a horse;" most likely these were big alkali sacaton (Sporobolus wrightii) and tobosa (Pleuraphis mutica) bottomlands.</p><br>
<p>The Schouten Islands  are an island group of Papua province, eastern Indonesia in the Cenderawasih Bay  50 km off the north-western coast of the island of New Guinea. The group consists of the main islands of Biak, Supiori and Numfor, and numerous smaller islands, mostly covered in rain forest.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first recorded sighting by Europeans of the Schouten Islands was by the Portuguese navigator Jorge de Menezes in 1526. On the voyage from Malacca to Maluku, via northern Borneo, he was further carried eastward by a storm and strong winds. Jorge de Menezes landed at Biak, where he was forced to winter. Inspired by Malay, Moluccan or local Papuan names, he named the archipelago, and eventually the coasts of western Papua "Islands of Papuas". Biak was thenceforth called in Portuguese maps Ilha de Dom Jorge or Ilha onde invernou Dom Jorge, and Ilha de S. Jorge.</p><br>
<p>The archipelago was also sighted by Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra who landed on Yapen on June 24, 1528, when trying to return from Tidore to New Spain. The islands were named Islas de Oro (Golden Islands in Spanish). In 1545 they were visited by Íñigo Órtiz de Retes on board the galleon San Juan.</p><br>
<p>The archipelago was first mapped in the Portuguese charts of Gaspar Viegas (c. 1537), an anonymous map of 1540, and on the maps of João de Lisboa and of Bartolomeu Velho (c. 1560), and by other Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch maps.</p><br>
<p>The Schouten Islands were eventually named after Dutch explorer Willem Schouten, who explored them in 1615.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The Schouten Islands are among the most densely populated parts of Papua province.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>These small islands have been designated the Biak–Numfoor rain forests as having the most highly endemic avifauna of any single area in the New Guinea region. The forest consists of similar types of trees to that on mainland New Guinea.</p><br>
<p>There are over 100 bird species on the islands, of which 11 to 16 are endemic, that is, restricted to this small island group. These include: black-winged lory (Eos cyanogenia); the small tree-climbing Geelvink pygmy parrot (Micropsitta geelvinkiana); Biak scrubfowl (Megapodius geelvinkianus); spice imperial-pigeon (Ducula myristicivora); yellow-bibbed fruit-dove (Ptilinopus solomonensis); Biak coucal (Centropus chalybeus); two tree kingfishers, Biak paradise kingfisher (Tanysiptera riedelii) and Numfor paradise kingfisher (Tanysiptera carolinae); Biak gerygone (Gerygone hypoxantha) (a subspecies of the large-billed gerygone); Biak monarch (Monarcha brehmii); Biak flycatcher (Myiagra atra); long-tailed starling (Aplonis magna); and Biak white-eye (Zosterops mysorensis). As well as the birds, there are a number of endemic mammals, although there are only 29 mammal species on the islands. The endemics include: Biak naked-backed fruit bat (Dobsonia emersaa) a species of barebacked fruit bat (so-called because their wings are attached to the back rather than the sides, giving this type of bat a different appearance to most species; a marsupial Biak glider (Petaurus biacensis); Japen rat (Rattus jobiensis); and two species of giant naked-tailed rat, Uromys boeadii and Uromys emmae</p><br>
<p>. The islands also have a number of endemic butterflies and one endemic spider Diolenius angustipes.</p><br>
<p>Much of the forest has been cut down for logging or to clear land for planting especially on Biak Island, which is the most populous in the area, although logging has slowed down now. There are two protected areas, which are close to each other: Pulau Supiori Nature Reserve, which is most of Supiori Island; and Biak Utara Nature Reserve which is an area on Biak Island just across the bridge from Supiori. However the logging industry may return, while birds are vulnerable to collectors and just because they have such a limited range of habitat on these small islands. The area needs more study. Diving in the waters off Biak is a popular activity for tourists.</p><br>
<p>The Battle of Sphacteria was a land battle of the Peloponnesian War, fought in 425 BC between Athens and Sparta. Following the Battle of Pylos and subsequent peace negotiations, which failed, a number of Spartans were stranded on the island of Sphacteria. An Athenian force under Cleon and Demosthenes attacked and forced them to surrender.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>In the wake of the failed peace negotiations, Demosthenes initially attempted to starve out the Spartans on Sphacteria, but was unable to blockade the island tightly enough. In Athens there was concern that the approach of winter would necessitate abandoning the blockade, unless the impasse was swiftly broken. The politician Cleon took out reinforcements from Athens and joined forces with Demosthenes, and the Athenians launched an assault on Pylos. Landing in great force on a weakly defended point, the Athenians swamped the beachfront defenses and moved inland, harassing the Spartans with missile fire whenever they attempted to come to grips with the Athenian hoplites. The Spartans retreated to the northern end of the island and dug in behind their fortifications, but when the Messenian general Comon succeeded in bringing his troops through seemingly impassable terrain into their rear, the Spartans surrendered.</p><br>
<p>The capture of over 292 hoplites (120 of which were Spartans) by Athens radically shifted the balance of power in the war. Athens threatened to execute its prisoners if Sparta invaded Attica, and the annual invasions which had occurred since the war&#39;s declaration were thus halted. Athens, meanwhile, with increased prestige and confidence, went on to pursue the war with more vigor and initiative for several years, returning to the negotiating table only after a string of defeats had eroded its position.</p><br>
<h2>Prelude and early moves</h2><br>
<p>After the Battle of Pylos, which resulted in the isolation of over 400 Spartan soldiers on the island of Sphacteria, Sparta sued for peace, and, after arranging an armistice at Pylos by surrendering the ships of the Peloponnesian fleet as security, sent an embassy to Athens to negotiate a settlement. These negotiations, however, proved fruitless, and with the news of their failure the armistice came to an end; the Athenians, however, refused to return the Peloponnesian ships, alleging that assaults had been made against their fortifications during the truce. Hostilities resumed immediately, with the Athenians guarding the island night and day against attempts at rescue or resupply.</p><br>
<p>Demosthenes, commanding the force at Pylos, initially planned to starve the Spartans out rather than attack them, but as time wore on it became clear that the Spartans would be able to hold out for longer than anticipated. By offering freedom to Helots and monetary rewards to free men who would volunteer to carry food across to the island, the Spartans were able to bring in a small but critical stream of food. Some of these men reached the island by approaching from the seaward side at night during rough weather; others swam underwater towing bags of food. The Athenians, meanwhile, found themselves frequently short on rations, and the entire force was forced to depend on a single spring for its fresh water. In these adverse circumstances, the Athenians began to doubt that they could resolve the issue by siege before winter forced them to lift their blockade.</p><br>
<h2>Debate at Athens</h2><br>
<p>This negative turn of fortunes was the source of much concern at Athens, the decision to reject Sparta&#39;s peace offer became an item of much popular regret. Noting this turn of popular opinion, Cleon, who had been the principal advocate of rejecting the peace offer, claimed that the reports brought back from the scene must be inaccurate. When Nicias, a political opponent of his and a strategos for that year, proposed to send a commission, with Cleon among its members, to verify the reports from Pylos, Cleon attacked him for proposing to waste time that should have been spent attacking. Nicias countered this rhetorical thrust by offering to stand aside as a general, and allow Cleon to take command of an expeditionary force to Pylos. Although he had no authority to make this offer, the assembly, caught up in the enthusiasm of the moment, went along with him, urging Cleon to back up his words with action.</p><br>
<p>Cleon was probably aware that an attack was already being planned at Pylos, as he was likely to have been in communication with Demosthenes, but once he realized that Nicias&#39;s offer was more than a rhetorical ploy he attempted to back down from his challenge. The crowd, however, refused to permit this, and Cleon was eventually compelled to accept command. Reassuming the bold attitude he had taken at the start of the debate, Cleon proclaimed that, with the force he had been given, he would either kill or capture the Spartans within twenty days. Naming Demosthenes as his partner in command, he set out from Athens with a force composed of Athenian sailors and ships carrying allied peltasts and archers.</p><br>
<h2>Attack on Sphacteria</h2><br>
<p>Demosthenes had already been planning an attack on Sphacteria, as the difficulty of the circumstances his men were in had led him to doubt the viability of a prolonged siege. Moreover, a fire on the island, ignited by Athenian sailors sneaking across to cook a meal away from the crowded confines of Pylos, had denuded the island of vegetation and allowed Demosthenes to examine both the contours of the island and the number and disposition of the defenders. Seeing that only thirty Spartans were detailed to guard the southern end of the island, away from Pylos, Demosthenes landed his 800 hoplites on both the seaward and landward sides of the island one night. The Spartan garrison, thinking that the Athenian ships were only mooring in their usual nightly watch posts, was caught off guard and massacred. At dawn, the remainder of the Athenian force streamed ashore; these included some 2,000 light troops (psiloi) and archers and some 8,000 rowers from the fleet, armed with whatever weapons could be found.</p><br>
<p>The Spartans, under their commander Epitadas, attempted to come to grips with the Athenian hoplites and push their enemies back into the sea, but Demosthenes detailed his lightly armed troops, in companies of about 200 men, to occupy high points and harass the enemy with missile fire whenever they approached. When the Spartans rushed at their tormentors, the light troops, unencumbered by heavy hoplite armor, were easily able to run to safety; dust and ash from the recent fire, stirred up by the commotion, further contributed to the Spartans predicament by obscuring their attackers from their sight. Unable to make any headway, the Spartans withdrew in some confusion to the northern end of the island, where they dug in behind their fortifications and hoped to hold out. A stalemate took hold for some time, with the Athenians trying unsuccessfully to dislodge the Spartans from their strong positions. At this point, the commander of the Messenian detachment in the Athenian force, Comon, approached Demosthenes and asked that he be given troops with which to move through the seemingly impassable terrain along the islands shore. His request was granted, and Comon led his men into the Spartan rear through a route that had been left unguarded on account of its roughness. When he emerged with his force, the Spartans, in disbelief, abandoned their defenses; the Athenians seized the approaches to the fort, and the Spartan force stood on the brink of annihilation.</p><br>
<h2>Surrender and aftermath</h2><br>
<p>At this point, Cleon and Demosthenes declined to push the attack further, preferring to take as many Spartans as they could prisoner. An Athenian herald offered the Spartans a chance to surrender, and the Spartans, throwing down their shields, agreed at least to negotiate. Cleon and Demosthenes met with the Spartan commander Styphon (Styphon had initially been the third in command, but Epitadas had been killed and his first successor was severely wounded and had been left for dead). Styphon requested to send a herald to the mainland to seek advice; the Athenians refused to allow any of the trapped men to leave, but permitted as many heralds from the mainland as were desired to pass back and forth. Several messengers did so, the last of whom left Styphon with the message "The Spartans order you to make your decision yourselves, so long as you do nothing dishonorable." Styphon and his men, with no hope of victory or escape, surrendered. Of the 440 Spartans who had crossed over to Sphacteria, 292 survived to surrender; of these, 120 were men of the elite Spartiate class.</p><br>
<p>"The outcome," Donald Kagan has observed, "shook the Greek world." Spartans, it had been supposed, would never surrender. Now, with Spartiate hostages in their hands, the Athenians issued an ultimatum; any invasion of Attica would lead to the execution of their prisoners. For the first time since the beginning of the war, the Athenians could farm their crops securely. At Pylos, a Messenian garrison was installed, and these men, launching raids into country that had once been their home, did significant damage to the Spartans and instigated the desertion of numerous Helots. At Athens, Cleon, his seemingly mad promise fulfilled, was the man of the hour; he was granted meals at the state&#39;s expense in the prytaneum (the same reward granted to Olympic champions), and most scholars see his hand in the legislation of the following months, the most prominent item of which was an increased levy of tribute on the empire. Sphacteria had changed the nature of the war. The next few years would see a newly aggressive Athens, and it would take a string of Athenian reverses to diffuse the impetus that the surrenders had given and bring the two sides to the table to negotiate the Peace of Nicias in 421 BC.</p><br>
<p>Ballard Down is an area of chalk downland on the Purbeck Hills in the English county of Dorset. The hills meet the English Channel here, and Ballard Down forms a headland, Ballard Point, between Studland Bay to the north and Swanage Bay to the south. The chalk here forms part of a system of chalk downlands in southern England, and once formed a continuous ridge between what is now west Dorset and the present day Isle of Wight. Old Harry Rocks, just offshore from the dip slope of the down, and The Needles on the westernmost tip of the Isle of Wight, are remnants of this ridge. The scarp slope of the down faces south, over Swanage, meeting the sea as Ballard Cliff.</p><br>
<p>The down was an area of calcareous grassland for up to 1000 years until World War II, when there was a sudden rise in the need for arable agricultural land. The down is now owned by the National Trust, and has largely been returned to grassland. The National Trust allows grazing on the down to prevent it becoming a natural beech woodland climax community.</p><br>
<p>The obelisk at Ballard Down commemorates the provision of a new supply of drinking water for Swanage in 1883. It was taken down in 1941 as it was a landmark that might have aided enemy aircraft during World War II, but was re-erected in 1952.</p><br>
<p>Ballard Down forms the easternmost part of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site, which stretches for 155 km, from Orcombe Point near Exmouth, in the west, to Old Harry Rocks. The coastal exposures along the coastline comprise a continuous sequence of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous rock formations spanning about 185 million years. The Jurassic Coast includes a large range of important fossil zones.</p><br>
<p>The North Downs are a ridge of chalk hills in south east England that stretch from Farnham in Surrey to the White Cliffs of Dover in Kent. Westerham Heights, at the northern edge of the North Downs, near Bromley, South London, is the highest point in London at an elevation of 245 m. The North Downs lie within two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty , the Surrey Hills and the Kent Downs. The North Downs Way National Trail runs along the North Downs from Farnham to Dover.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Downs is from Old English dun, meaning, amongst other things, "hill". The word acquired the sense of "elevated rolling grassland" around the 14th century. The name contains "North" to distinguish them from a similar range of hills – the South Downs – which runs roughly parallel to them but some 50 km to the south.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The narrow spine of the Hog&#39;s Back between Farnham and Guildford forms the western extremity of the North Downs, whilst the cliffs between Folkestone and Deal terminate the ridge in the east. There are two distinct aspects, the steep south-facing escarpment and the gentle north-facing dip slope. The southern boundary is defined by the foot of the escarpment which gives way to the flat, broad clay lands between the Downs and Greensand Ridge known as the Vale of Holmesdale. The northern boundary is less apparent but occurs where the chalk submerges below the more recent Paleocene deposits.</p><br>
<p>The Downs are highest near the Kent–Surrey border, often reaching heights in excess of 200 m above sea level at the crest of the escarpment. The highest point is Botley Hill in Surrey at 269 m. The County top of Kent at Betsom&#39;s Hill, with a height of 251 m is located nearby, and the highest point in Greater London, Westerham Heights, at 245 m is on the northern side of the same hill. East of the Medway Valley the Downs become broader and flatter, extending as far as the Isle of Thanet.</p><br>
<p>The ridge is intersected by the valleys of a series of rivers: the Wey, Mole, Darent, Medway and Stour rivers. These drain much of the Weald to the south. The western rivers are tributaries of the Thames; they have carved steep valleys through the chalk and provide natural corridor routes. In addition to existing rivers, the Downs are crossed by a number of wind gaps – prehistoric river valleys no longer occupied by rivers – including those at Farnham, Betchworth, Caterham, Lyminge and Hawkinge. Except for the river valleys and wind gaps, the crest of the escarpment is almost continuous along its length. The dip slope is dissected by many small dry valleys, and in the broad eastern part in Kent, by further river valleys such as that of the Little Stour. Leith Hill is sometimes incorrectly referred to as part of the North Downs, but it is located on the parallel Greensand Ridge and does not consist of chalk.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Downland of the North Downs consists of distinct lithostratigraphic units (the types of strata, the names of which are always capitalised):</p><br>
<p>The more level tops of the Downs are often covered by acidic strata, usually including a layer of Clay-with-Flints, a sandy clay with many flints, or various sands and gravels (these are not shown on the geological map and section in this article).</p><br>
<p>The Chalk Group, composed almost entirely of chalk, a kind of soft fine-grained limestone. It is formed of three parts, the Upper Chalk, which has many flints, the Middle Chalk, with fewer flints, and the Lower Chalk or Coombe Rock, greyish, with few flints. The chalk is most commonly exposed on slopes or as cliffs, where the overlying acidic strata have been quarried or washed away. The buried upper surface of the chalk beneath the acidic strata is often eroded into pipes, gulleys and pinnacles, sometimes visible in road cuttings and quarries.</p><br>
<p>The Upper Greensand Formation, a whitish, limy sandstone, often used for building, for which it has been mined from beneath the chalk (for example from the Godstone Baby Mines). The Upper Greensand of the North Downs is a thin bed of one or two metres thickness, and it is rarely visible at the surface (it is much thicker elsewhere).</p><br>
<p>The Upper Greensand marks the southern edge of the Downs, being underlain by:</p><br>
<p>The Gault Formation of stiff blue clay.</p><br>
<p>The Lower Greensand Formation of the Lower Cretaceous period, containing greensand, a glauconite sand or sandstone, as well as a certain amount of silts, clays, ironstone and limestone.</p><br>
<p>The topography of the North Downs mainly consists of the Chalk Group, the rock strata of the Upper Cretaceous period which in certain areas is overlain by superficial deposits of gravels or clay-with-flints.</p><br>
<p>Citing Dr D. T. Aldiss of the British Geological Survey:</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The North Downs support several important habitats. The most distinctive of these is chalk grassland, which is largely limited to steep escarpment and valley slopes. This semi-natural habitat is maintained through sheep, cattle and rabbit grazing which prevents scrub encroachment. Chalk grassland to the west of the Medway Valley is dominated by upright brome (Bromus erectus) and fescue (Festuca) whilst grassland to the east is dominated by tor-grass (Brachypodium pinnatum). Because of the close proximity of the North Downs to the European continent, the warm climate and the south facing escarpment, several plant species survive on the chalk grassland which are scarce or not found elsewhere in the British Isles.</p><br>
<p>The nationally rare late spider orchid (Ophrys fuciflora) is limited within the British Isles to chalk grassland between Folkestone and Wye. One of the two native British sites for the nationally rare monkey orchid (Orchis simia) is on the North Downs. The nationally scarce man orchid (Orchis anthropophora) is not uncommon on chalk grassland on the Downs in Surrey and Kent. Other scarce plant species such as early gentian (Gentiana anglica), dwarf milkwort (Polygala amarella) and bedstraw broomrape (Orobanche caryophyllacea) also occur on chalk grassland in the North Downs.</p><br>
<p>Chalk grassland also supports a rich fauna, particularly insects. Notable butterfly species include Adonis blue (Lysandra bellargus) and silver-spotted skipper (Hesperia comma) which may be found on warm, sheltered, south facing slopes. The chalk downland above the Stour Valley is the only British site for the black-veined moth (Siona lineata). Other notable moth species that occur on the North Downs include the fiery clearwing moth (Bembecia chrysidiformis) and the straw belle moth (Aspitates gilvaria).</p><br>
<p>Woodland was far more extensive on the North Downs prior to human clearance 5000 to 4000 years ago. Where this is the case species such as pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) predominate although much woodland has been replanted with conifer and sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa). In Surrey, there are small areas of chalk heath where heathland and chalkland plants grow alongside each other.</p><br>
<p>On the summit of the cliffs between Deal and Folkestone the early spider orchid (Ophrys sphegodes) occurs in large numbers, as well as the rare oxtongue broomrape (Orobanche artemisae-campestris). Naturally exposed chalk is rare inland with the exception of the river cliffs formed by the River Mole on the west face of Box Hill and at Ham Bank in Norbury Park. However, quarry lakes within chalk pits provide habitat for great crested newt (Triturus cristatus). The scarce musk orchid (Herminium monorchis) has colonised disused chalk pits near Hollingbourne in Kent.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Worked flints and human and animal remains dating from the Lower Paleolithic, about 400,000 years ago, were discovered at Barnfield Pit near Swanscombe; this provides the earliest evidence of human occupation in the North Downs. It is suggested that human activity at that time coincided with intermittent warm phases during the last glacial period and that continuous occupation of the Downs did not occur until warming after the glaciation. Flint axes have also been found on river terraces at Farnham, on Walton and Banstead Heaths and on the crest of the escarpment above Folkestone. There is considerable evidence of Mesolithic activity in the Surrey Downs through the discovery of pit-dwellings at Weston Woods near Albury and the quantity of discarded tools, microliths and other implements discovered.</p><br>
<p>In about 3000 BC the emergence of Neolithic culture saw the lifestyle of the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers shift to a more sedentary and communal lifestyle that relied upon the keeping of livestock and the growing of crops. There is substantial evidence of Neolithic activity within the North Downs, notably the long barrows concentrated in the Medway and Stour valleys. The Medway long barrows, which include Kit&#39;s Coty House and Coldrum Stones, are constructed of sarsen stone, locally found on Blue Bell Hill and in the valleys of the dip slope, whilst the Stour Valley long barrows are constructed of earth.</p><br>
<h2>Agriculture and industry</h2><br>
<p>The landscape of the Downs has been greatly shaped by man. There has been deforestation of the Downs for centuries. The woodland that remains today is largely located where deforestation has been inhibited by steep slopes or by the layer of clay with flints, which is difficult to plough. Because of the many small farms that have survived on the Downs, a network of narrow lanes and minor roads has developed. This has resulted in a landscape similar to that found in Normandy known as bocage. The predominant type of farming on the Downs is arable farming; this increased greatly during the 20th century. Pastoral farming also occurs but to a lesser extent. Human settlements within the Downs have generally formed in sheltered valleys and at the foot of the scarp slope (known as spring line settlements). In recent years vineyards have been planted along the southern slopes of the Downs, in particular the Denbies Wine Estate, Dorking, which is the largest vineyard in the country, accounting for 10% of the country&#39;s vines. The chalky soils are similar to those of the Champagne region.</p><br>
<p>There is plenty of evidence of chalk extraction on the Downs, particularly along the scarp slope. Oil has been drilled at the foot of the Downs in several locations in Surrey. The Kent coalfield was established in the late 19th century after coal was found in 1890. Four successful collieries lasted throughout the 20th century: Betteshanger, Snowdown, Tilmanstone and Chislet. The east to west ridge of the Downs has provided a natural transport route for centuries. Much of the historic Pilgrims&#39; Way still survives at the foot of the scarp slope, and this has been joined much more recently by the M20 motorway. The scarp slope has also been used for fortification; many examples of this still exist, such as Thurnham Castle and on Castle Hill, Folkestone Castle Hill near Folkestone.</p><br>
<h2>Places of interest</h2><br>
<p>Many beauty spots on the North Downs are owned by the National Trust, for instance Box Hill and Langdon Cliffs. Other areas of interest are Newlands Corner, Wye Downs and the Hogs Back. Much chalk grassland and ancient woodland on the Downs is open-access, and there are also many historic sites such as Kit&#39;s Coty House (near Maidstone) and Dover Castle.</p><br>
<h2>Photo gallery</h2><br>
<p>Fort Wool is a decommissioned island fortification located approximately one mile south of Fort Monroe in the mouth of Hampton Roads. Now known as Rip Raps Island, the fort has an elevation of 7 feet and sits near Old Point Comfort, Old Point Comfort Light, Willoughby Beach and Willoughby Spit, adjacent to the Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel .</p><br>
<p>Fort Wool was one of more than forty forts started after the War of 1812 when British forces sailed the Chesapeake Bay to burn the Capital. Designed by Brigadier General of Engineers Simon Bernard, an expat Frenchman who had served as Napoleons chief engineer, Fort Wool was constructed on a shoal of ballast stones dumped as sailing ships entered Hamptons harbor and was originally intended to have three tiers of casemates and a parapet with 232 muzzle-loading cannons, although it never reached this size. Originally named Castle Calhoun for the Secretary of War, John C. Calhoun, Fort Wool was built to maintain a crossfire with Fort Monroe, located directly across the channel, thereby protecting the entrance to the harbor.</p><br>
<p>In 1902, as a result of the Endicott Board&#39;s findings,</p><br>
<p>all of the original fort, except for eight casemates, was demolished and new fortifications were constructed. The new armament mounted on five batteries of two to four guns remained in place for decades, with modifications made from time to time.</p><br>
<p>Only six of the original three-inch guns remained in 1942, when two were sent to nearby Fisherman Island. A modern battery of two new long-range six-inch guns was constructed over one of the old Endicott period batteries during World War II. The fort was decommissioned by the military in 1953.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Brigadier-general of Engineers Simon Bernard was tasked by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun to create or improve fortifications for the protection of vital USA ports. Bernard&#39;s plan was to build more than forty new forts, including Fort Wool, which he had named Fort Calhoun. The fort was to have three tiers of casemates and a parapet with a total of 232 muzzle-loading cannons mounted, and was to be manned by a garrison of 1,000 soldiers. It was to built on a 15 acre (61,000 m²) artificial island southeast of Old Point Comfort in Hampton, Virginia. Construction got underway in 1819 when crews started dumping granite boulders into the water. It took four years to bring the rock pile up to the a 6-foot tall island called for in the plans.</p><br>
<p>A controversy soon arose over the stones purchased for the island.</p><br>
<p>A nineteen-page report sent May 7, 1822 to the House of Representatives from the Military Affairs committee included depositions from individuals alleging that the contract to deliver 150,000 perches of stone at $3.00 per perch awarded to Elijah Mix on July 25, 1818 was fraudulent. Before awarding the contract, inquiries had been made at several quarries, and it was no secret that the government needed lots of stone for the project. The allegation was that the contract was awarded to Mix by General Joseph Swift of the War Department without advertising for bids. While other contracts had been awarded without advertising for bids as was standard procedure before April 1818, in April 1818 the newly reorganized United States Army Corps of Engineers required public notice be given for every contract after that date.</p><br>
<p>Two proposals were received before the contract was awarded to Mix, and two more afterwards. All four of these proposals came in with higher bids than the one Mix offered. Many knowledgeable men agreed that the government had made a good deal, and the contractor had made a bad one for himself.</p><br>
<p>In 1819, the controversy increased when Mix assigned half his contract to Major Christopher Van Deventer, who was chief clerk in the War Department. Major Van Deventer and Mix were married to the daughters of Major Samuel Cooper, a noted Revolutionary War officer. Van Deventer later sold half of his interest to his father-in-law, Major Cooper. Secretary of War Calhoun had advised him that while what was done was not illegal, it “might expose Van Deventer to improper insinuations.” Major Van Deventer deposed that he had no interest in the contract when it was first negotiated nor did he have any influence when the contract was awarded. General Swift deposed that he felt Major Van Deventer had no interest in the contract when it was originally negotiated. Major Cooper and Major Van Deventer sold their shares to Howes Goldsborough & Co. on July 1, 1820.</p><br>
<p>Construction of the fort began in 1826, and after considerable delays caused by subsidence of the island, the first level of casemates was finally completed in 1830. Only ten guns were mounted. Construction continued through 1834, and only half of the second tier was completed. It was then found that Fort Calhouns foundations had continued settling. A young second lieutenant and engineer in the USA Army, Robert E. Lee was transferred there to assist Captain Andrew Talcott, the USA Army engineer in charge of the construction of Fort Wool and its larger companion Fort Monroe, across the channel on the mainland. Lee was given the task of stabilizing the island as his first independent command. He found that the island wouldnt hold the weight of the two tiers of casemates and brought more stone in to stabilize it, but the fort never reached its intended size. Lee found the stone foundation under the fort was the problem, and that it would never support the weight of three tiers and parapet of the completed fort.</p><br>
<p>Fort Wool also has a little-known association with presidents. President Andrew Jackson, broken hearted after the death of his wife and in frail health, came to Fort Wool in the late 1820s and the 1830s. Jackson made the fort his "White House." Jackson built a hut and would watch ships pass the island. He even made key policy decisions from the fort with cabinet advisers. Ironically President Jacksons Secretary of War John C. Calhoun had become the presidents arch rival by this stage, by threatening to pull South Carolina out of the union. Later President John Tyler took sanctuary on the island after the death of his wife. Abraham Lincoln also visited the fort.</p><br>
<p>Fort Wool even has an association with the actor Sir Alec Guinness, who was grounded in a minefield off the fort in World War II. The comedian Red Skelton also showed up at Fort Wool during the war to entertain troops.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War</h2><br>
<p>In 1862, with the Civil War underway, a name change was in order for Fort Calhoun. The fort was first named after John C. Calhoun, President Monroe&#39;s Secretary of War who was a Southern politician of secessionist tendencies, it was decided that it would be named after Maj. Gen. John Ellis Wool, a Mexican War hero and commander at Fort Monroe.</p><br>
<p>A very powerful experimental cannon, the Sawyer Gun,</p><br>
<p>was installed at Fort Wool during the Civil War. The range of this weapon extended all the way to Sewells Point, more than three miles away (where the Norfolk Naval Base is now located), the site of a Confederate earthen fort with bastions and a redan and three artillery batteries totaling of 45 guns. The Battle of Hampton Roads took place off Sewells Point on March 8–9, 1862. USS Monitor faced CSS Virginia during the Battle of the Ironclads in 1862. The Sawyer Gun also fired at Virginia, although it did no damage to the ironclads armor.</p><br>
<h2>Endicott batteries</h2><br>
<p>Five gun batteries were constructed after 1902, when funding became available to implement the recommendations of the Endicott board.</p><br>
<p>p 212</p><br>
<p>Battery Ferdinand Claiborne: two shielded six-inch guns on disappearing carriages (1908-1918)</p><br>
<p>Battery Alexander Dyer: two shielded six-inch guns on disappearing carriages (1908-1917)</p><br>
<p>Battery Horatio Gates: two shielded six-inch guns on disappearing carriages (1908-1917)</p><br>
<p>Battery Henry Lee (Battery 13): four 3-inch rapid-fire guns (1905-1946).</p><br>
<p>Battery Jacob Hindman (Battery 14): two 3-inch rapid-fire guns (1905-1946)</p><br>
<h2>World War I</h2><br>
<p>In 1917 and 1918, all of the six-inch guns and disappearing carriages were removed.</p><br>
<p>Battery Ferdinand Claiborne: two shielded six-inch guns on disappearing carriages (1908-1918)</p><br>
<p>Battery Alexander Dyer: two shielded six-inch guns on disappearing carriages (1908-1917)</p><br>
<p>Battery Horatio Gates: two shielded six-inch guns on disappearing carriages (1908-1917)</p><br>
<p>Battery Henry Lee (Battery 13): four 3-inch rapid-fire guns (1905-1946).</p><br>
<p>Battery Jacob Hindman (Battery 14): two 3-inch rapid-fire guns (1905-1946)</p><br>
<p>Submarine nets were stretched across the harbor from this point.</p><br>
<p>Submarine mines (called "torpedoes" at the time) stored here. The mines were controlled from Fort Monroe.</p><br>
<h2>World War II</h2><br>
<p>Additional armament and other changes were made after 1942:</p><br>
<p>Two Searchlight Towers replaced two 1921 wooden towers in 1930.</p><br>
<p>Battery 229 (Battery 12) with two 6-inch shielded guns (1944) was constructed on the ruins of Battery Horatio Gates. The work was completed, and the shielded carriages were installed, however, the gun tubes were not mounted.</p><br>
<p>50 caliber and 37mm Anti-Aircraft Machine Guns.</p><br>
<p>A modern Fire Control Tower replaced the original 1921 wooden tower.</p><br>
<p>SCR 296 radar set and Tower for its antenna.</p><br>
<p>A.A. Searchlight Tower.</p><br>
<p>Submarine mines stored here. The mines were controlled from Fort Monroe.</p><br>
<h2>Decommissioning</h2><br>
<p>The fort was decommissioned in 1953 and given to the Commonwealth of Virginia. In the 1950s, the Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel (HRBT) was constructed next to Fort Wool, with its southern island connected to the fort by an earthen causeway. The HRBT opened to traffic in 1957. In 1967 and again in 1970, the City of Hampton developed the fort into a park, accessed by the passenger ferry, Miss Hampton II, which allows tourists boarding in Hampton to visit the island almost year-round. The fort can also be seen by westbound vehicles on approach to the HRBT southern tunnel, which carries Interstate 64 across the mouth of Hampton Roads.</p><br>
<p>The island, now called Rip Raps, continues to settle in modern times, and occasionally the casemates of the original fortress are off-limits for safety reasons.</p><br>
<p>Bala Lake  is a lake in Gwynedd, Wales. The name Tegid may be related to Welsh teg, meaning "fair". It was the largest natural body of water in Wales before its level was raised by Thomas Telford to help support the flow of the Ellesmere Canal. It is 3.7 mi long by 0.5 mi wide, and is subject to sudden and dangerous floods. The River Dee runs through it and the waters of the lake are famously deep and clear. The town of Bala sits at its north-eastern end and the narrow gauge Bala Lake Railway runs for 3 mi along the lakes south-eastern shore, and continues south-westward to the village of Llanuwchllyn .</p><br>
<h2>Formation</h2><br>
<p>The lake lies in a glacial valley which follows the Bala to Tal-y-Llyn fault line. The valley was blocked by a terminal moraine in the area of the village of Bala, thus forming the lake, which has remarkably straight and parallel sides.</p><br>
<h2>Origins of name</h2><br>
<p>George Borrow wrote of the lake in Wild Wales in 1856, "The lake has certainly not its name, which signifies Lake of Beauty, for nothing". In English the lake is sometimes named after the nearby town of Bala, whose name means "outlet of a lake" in Welsh. An older, now unused, English name for the lake is Pemble Mere or Pimble Mere (of which many variant spellings are recorded). The twelfth century traveller, Giraldus Cambrensis mentions it as Penmelesmere which translator Sir Richard Colt Hoare writing in 1806 records in a footnote also in the form Pymplwy meer or the meer of five parishes adjoining the lake. Hoare goes on to say that it is, in modern days, better known by the name of Bala Pool.</p><br>
<h2>Biology</h2><br>
<p>Llyn Tegid has abundant pike, perch, brown trout, roach, eel. It also contains the gwyniad, a fish unique to the locality and listed as critically endangered by the IUCN due to the introduction of the invasive and non native ruffe; and the very rare mollusc Myxas glutinosa (the glutinous snail). According to legend, whilst the Dee itself flows through the lake, the waters never mix. However this was not confirmed by the detailed limnological work undertaken from the 1990s, to understand and manage the occurrence of algal blooms on the lake. The lake now forms part of the River Dee regulation system and the level at its outflow is automatically controlled. Depending on flow conditions and the level of water in Llyn Celyn, water can flow either into or out of the lake at the normal outflow point.</p><br>
<p>In the 1990s the lake suffered from blooms of blue-green algae which indicated a significant and worrying eutrophication of the lake. Investigation by the now abolished Environment Agency in partnership with the water industry, the farming community and others has put in place a plan for reducing pollution inputs to the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Legend</h2><br>
<p>In the legend of the History of Taliesin, the character Tegid Foel ("Bald Tegid") was the husband of the goddess or witch Ceridwen. The place where his court stood is now beneath the waters of the lake. According to folk tradition, the court was drowned one night. It is said that the light of the court and the little town around it can be seen on a moonlit night.</p><br>
<h2>The 3 Lakes Challenge</h2><br>
<p>The 40-mile Three Lakes Challenge (or "Loch, Lake, Llyn") is a challenge first completed by a five-person relay of Sam Plum, Jason Betley, Helen Gibbs, Helen Liddle, and Debbie Taylor on 3–4 July 2015 under English Channel Rules. The challenge involves swimming the length of Loch Awe in Scotland (25 miles), then driving to the Lake District and swimming the length of Windermere (10.5 miles), and finally driving to Wales and swimming the length of Llyn Tegid (3.7 miles). This new challenge, dubbed The 3 Lakes Challenge, is proposed as the swimming equivalent of the famous National Three Peaks Challenge.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Bala has two sailing clubs, and a number of companies provide kayaks, yachts and various other types of boats for hire.</p><br>
<p>Horseshoe Falls  is a weir on the River Dee near Llantysilio Hall in Denbighshire, Wales, about 5 km north-west of the town of Llangollen.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The distinctively shaped weir, which is 460 ft long, helps create a pool of water that can enter the Llangollen Canal (via an adjacent valve house and flow meter). The canal west of Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and the construction of the weir were authorised by an Act of Parliament obtained in 1804 by the Ellesmere Canal Company. The canal was a navigable feeder, which supplied water to the Ellesmere Canal beyond Pontcysyllte, and to the Chester Canal, to which it connected near Nantwich. Thomas Telford was the civil engineer responsible for the design, and the canal and feeder were completed in 1808.</p><br>
<p>The weir was an important factor in the retention of the canal to Llangollen when the owners of the entire Shropshire Union system, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, decided to close much of the network in 1944. They retained the line of the former Chester Canal and the Ellesmere Canal from Nantwich to Ellesmere Port, the branch of the Chester Canal to Middlewich and the former Birmingham and Liverpool Junction Canal main line from Nantwich to Wolverhampton. Because Horseshoe Falls was a major source of water to that system, the canal from Llangollen to Nantwich, including the great aqueducts at Pontcysyllte and Chirk, was retained purely as a water supply channel. This action enabled the canal to survive until it was taken over by British Waterways following nationalisation in 1948. With the steady decline in commercial traffic, British Waterways negotiated with the Mid and South East Cheshire Water Board, and the canal is used to transfer water from the Dee at Llantysilio to a reservoir near Hurleston Junction, to the north of Nantwich. In 2009, some 13.7 e6impgal per day was conveyed along the canal. Under British Waterways, the canal has become one of the most popular cruising canals in the country. The final 1.7 mi from Llangollen to the Falls is not navigable by motorised boats, as it is not wide enough for vessels to turn round, but the towpath extends along the bank right up to the Falls.</p><br>
<p>Since 2009, the weir has been part of a World Heritage Site, which covers 11 mi of the Llangollen Canal from just west of Horseshoe Falls to just beyond Chirk Aqueduct. The canal was awarded World Heritage status because of the bold civil engineering solutions needed to construct a canal with no locks through such difficult terrain.</p><br>
<p>Big Diomede Island ; Inupiat: Imaqłiq) or "Tomorrow Island"  is an island among the Diomede Islands in the middle of the Bering Strait. The island is a part of the Chukotsky District of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug of Russia.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Big Diomede Island is located about 45 km southeast of Cape Dezhnev on the Chukchi Peninsula and is Russias easternmost point or, technically, the westernmost point. The coordinates are 65&deg;46&prime;52&Prime;N latitude, 169&deg;03&prime;25&Prime;W longitude. The rocky tuya-type island has an area of about 29 km&sup2; The International Date Line is about 1.3 km east of the island. The highest point of the island is at 65°4624.64" N, 169°04&#39;06.61" W where the elevation reaches 1,566 feet tall.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island was originally inhabited by Inupiat. The First Alaskans Institute says that, "The people of the Diomede and King Islands are Inupiat...".</p><br>
<p>The first European to reach the islands was the Russian explorer Semyon Dezhnyov in 1648. The Russian navigator (Danish nationality) Vitus Bering re-discovered the Diomede Islands on August 16, 1728, the day on which the Russian Orthodox Church celebrates the memory of the martyr St. Diomede.</p><br>
<p>In 1732, the Russian geodesist Mikhail Gvozdev plotted the island&#39;s map.</p><br>
<p>In 1867, during the Alaska Purchase, the new border between the nations was drawn between the Big Diomede and Little Diomede islands.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>During World War II, Big Diomede became a military base, and remained so for some time into the Cold War.</p><br>
<p>After World War II, the Native population was forced off Big Diomede Island to the mainland in order to avoid contacts across the border. Today, unlike Alaska&#39;s neighboring Little Diomede Island, it has no permanent native population, but it is the site of a Russian weather station and a base of Border Service of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation troops (FSB).</p><br>
<p>During the Cold War, the section of the border between the USA and the USSR separating Big and Little Diomede became known as the "Ice Curtain". In 1987, however, Lynne Cox swam from Little Diomede to Big Diomede (approx. 2.2 mi) and was congratulated jointly by Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>Eleven species of birds including such as puffins and guillemots have been found on Big Diomede. In 1976 a rufous hummingbird was identified on the island. This finding, unique so far in Russia, was very likely due to a dispersed specimen. For mammals, pinnipeds (e.g. ringed and bearded seals, walruses) and cetaceans (e.g. gray and rarer bowhead whales) inhabit the waters around the island.</p><br>
<p>The Diomede Islands , also known in Russia as Gvozdev Islands , consist of two rocky, mesa-like islands:</p><br>
<p>The Russian island of Big Diomede (part of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug), also known as Imaqliq, Inaliq, Nunarbuk or Ratmanov Island</p><br>
<p>The American island of Little Diomede or Ignaluk, also known as Krusenstern Island</p><br>
<p>The Diomede Islands are located in the middle of the Bering Strait between mainland Alaska and Siberia, which borders with the Chukchi Sea to the north and the Bering Sea to the south. 9.3 km to the southeast is Fairway Rock, which is generally not considered part of the Diomede Islands. Because they are separated by the International Date Line, Big Diomede is almost a day ahead of Little Diomede, but not completely; due to locally defined time zones, Big Diomede is only 21 hours ahead of Little Diomede (not 23 hours ahead—which is a common misconception). Because of this the islands are sometimes called Tomorrow Island (Big Diomede) and Yesterday Isle (Little Diomede).</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The islands are separated by an international border, which is also part of the International Date Line, about 2 km from each island, at 168°58&#39;37"W. At their closest points, the two islands are about 3.8 km apart. The small habitation on Little Diomede Island is centered on the west side of the island at the village of Diomede.</p><br>
<p>The Big Diomede Island is the easternmost point of Russia.</p><br>
<p>The Diomede Islands are often mentioned as likely intermediate stops for the hypothetical bridge or tunnel (Bering Strait crossing) spanning the Bering Strait.</p><br>
<p>During winter, an ice bridge usually spans the distance between these two islands; therefore during such times it is theoretically possible (although not legal, since travel between the two islands is forbidden) to walk between the United States and Russia.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first European to reach the Bering Strait was the Russian explorer Semyon Dezhnev in 1648. He reported two islands whose natives had bone lip ornaments, but it is not certain that these were the Diomedes. Danish navigator Vitus Bering, re-discovered the Diomede Islands while leading a Russian expedition, on 16 August (O.S., 26 August N.S.) 1728, the day when the Russian Orthodox Church celebrates the memory of the martyr St. Diomede (hence, the name of the islands). In 1732, a Russian geodesist, Mikhail Gvozdev, determined longitude and latitude for the two islands.</p><br>
<p>The text of the 1867 treaty between the United States and Russia which finalized the Alaska purchase uses the islands to designate the boundary between the two nations: The border separates "equidistantly Krusenstern Island, or Ignaluk, from Ratmanov Island, or Nunarbuk, and heads northward infinitely until it disappears completely in the Arctic Ocean."</p><br>
<p>During the Cold War, that gap constituted the border between the USA and the USSR, and became known as the "Ice Curtain". In 1987, however, Lynne Cox swam from one island to the other, and was congratulated by both Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan for her feat.</p><br>
<p>In summer 1995, British television actor and documentary presenter Michael Palin started his counterclockwise circumnavigation of the Pacific Rim, encompassing 18 different countries, on Little Diomede Island, as part of the BBC series Full Circle. He intended to set foot on it again at the end of his eight-month trek, but was unable to do so because of rough seas.</p><br>
<p>Big Diomede Island was traditionally the easternmost landmass before the International Date Line, and the first landmass to ring in a new year, if using local solar time. When using official time, however, a large area in eastern Russia and New Zealand also share the same time zone. New Zealand also has Daylight Saving time in effect during late December, but Russia does not (see time in New Zealand and time in Russia). This became moot in 1995, however, when the International Date Line was moved to the east of Kiribati and that countrys easternmost time zone (GMT+14) is now the worlds earliest.</p><br>
<p>The Soviet government relocated the indigenous population of Big Diomede Island to mainland Russia, and the island is now inhabited only by military units. Little Diomede has an Inupiat Inuit population of 170, entirely in the village site on the west side of the island, though the island as a whole comprises the City of Diomede. This village has a school and a store. Some Inuit residents are famous for their ivory carving. When weather permits, air contact is maintained with the island.</p><br>
<p>City Island is a small island and a neighborhood approximately 1.5 mi long by 0.5 mi wide. At one time it was incorporated within the boundaries of Pelham, Westchester County, New York, but it is now part of the New York City borough of the Bronx.</p><br>
<p>As of the 2010 census the island had a population of 4,362. Its land area is 1.023 km (0.395 sq mi, or 252.835 acres). The island is part of Bronx Community District 10. City Island&#39;s ZIP Code is 10464; its Area Code is 718; its exchange is 885.</p><br>
<p>City Island is located at the extreme western end of Long Island Sound, south of Pelham Bay and east of Eastchester Bay. The body of water between City Island and the even smaller (and uninhabited) Hart Island to the east is known as City Island Harbor. The small island adjacent to the northeast is High Island. The Stepping Stones Light, marking the main shipping channel into New York, is off the southern tip of City Island, near the Long Island shore. City Island is part of the Pelham Islands, a group of islands that once belonged to Thomas Pell.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Originally inhabited by the Siwanoy band of Lenape Indians, City Island later was settled by Europeans as part of property and estate bought by English nobleman Thomas Pell in 1654. Prior to that, English settlers led by Anne Hutchinson (seeking religious freedom) settled in an area nearby on the river (now known as the Hutchinson River) in 1642.</p><br>
<p>After changing hands several times, in 1761 the Island (at that time known as Minefer&#39;s Island), was bought by Benjamin Palmer of New York. Up to this point the island had been inhabited by only a few homes and farms. It had a population of about 1000 people, who tended farms and livestock. Palmer had the vision of developing the island into a port, which could rival that of New York. He knew that ships heading north and south passed City Island using Long Island Sound as a safe inshore waterway. He envisioned shipyards, and stores that could cater to the ships. He went as far as to have the island mapped out in different plots designated as shipyards, docks, business, farms, homes, schools, and houses of worship, along with streets, paths, and access routes. Benjamin Palmer appealed to the British Crown and received letters patent that covered the ownership of waterfront properties 400 feet out from the high tide mark under water and around the perimeter of the Island. This patent, known as the "Palmer Grant" is unique to City Island; it has been contested in courts since, but has always been upheld.</p><br>
<p>Palmer also is responsible for changing the name from Minefers Island to City Island in anticipation of things to come. Palmers vision never fully materialized, however, as the timing just before the American Revolution halted all progress, and the war depleted the capital of Palmer and his investors. It would be another sixty years before the island again started to be developed when oystermen, pilots of Hell Gate, a set of nearby narrows, and eventually shipbuilders arrived and introduced these industries.</p><br>
<p>The history of the island has been chronicled in Tales Of The Clamdiggers by Alice Payne, and in City Island and Orchard Beach (Images Of America) by Catherine A. Scott. According to local tradition, anyone actually born on the island is known as a "clamdigger". A City Island resident not born on the island is known as a "musselsucker."</p><br>
<h2>Community</h2><br>
<p>Most businesses are clustered along the central City Island Avenue. There are two small supermarkets, a gas station, a pharmacy, a bank, a hardware store, and a variety of other small shops. The island is most famous for its numerous seafood restaurants and antique stores, which line both sides of the avenue.</p><br>
<p>At the southernmost section of City Island is Belden Point, named for William Belden, a developer who opened an amusement park and resort in the area in 1887. In the early part of the 20th century, the area was a favored recreation location for business tycoons including Vincent Astor, J.P. Morgan and William Randolph Hearst. Today, Belden Point is home to a number of popular seafood restaurants. A new public greenspace was dedicated in 2016 at its waterfront tip.</p><br>
<p>Government services include the City Island Station post office (10464) and a FDNY firehouse (Engine 70, Ladder 53). The New York City Police Department presence (mostly traffic control on summer weekends) is provided by the 45th Precinct, located in the mainland Bronx. The City Island Branch is possibly the smallest of the New York Public Library system, even after the recent expansion which doubled the size of the building.</p><br>
<p>Houses of worship are Saint Mary Star of the Sea Holy Roman Catholic Church, Trinity United Methodist Church, Grace Episcopal Church, and Temple Beth El.</p><br>
<p>A local paper, The Island Current, is printed ten times a year, and chronicles mostly community issues and local news.</p><br>
<p>In 1960 City Island became the last community in New York City to get dial telephone service. Until then eight operators in a private home on Schofield Street connected all calls. The dial exchange began as TUlip 5, now 885.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>City Island was created by glacial deposits at the end of the last ice age. There is a layer of bedrock and then a thick layer of red clay topped with sand, with topsoil above that. The southern end has deposits of rare blue clay. The area is strewn with glacial erratic boulders. Local bedrock is Manhattan schist with glacial striations.</p><br>
<h3>Indigenous wildlife</h3><br>
<p>The forms of animal life on the island are not much different than that of the surrounding region, and are typical of a suburban environment: raccoons, squirrels, rabbits, skunk, and occasional deer. Coyotes and turkeys have also been sighted.</p><br>
<p>The real diversity of wildlife on and around City Island is among birds, especially aquatic species. There are many varieties of duck; buffleheads, goldeneyes, mallards, and cormorants. Canada geese are common, as are mute swans, great blue herons, great white egrets, and several types of gull. A small protected wetlands area on west Ditmars Street is home to many of these species as well as the feral pigeon.</p><br>
<p>Bright green parrots (monk parakeets), originally imported from South America as pets, have adapted to the climate and breed in the wild in New York. They are a common sight on City Island and in nearby Pelham Bay Park. Flocks of wild turkeys also are often seen in the park. Deer are occasionally seen on the island, although more commonly in Pelham Bay Park. Another, nonnative species of the island is the brown or De Kays snake, which has adapted to life among the islands growing community.</p><br>
<h3>Activities</h3><br>
<h4>Local businesses and attractions</h4><br>
<p>The island is famous for its seafood restaurants; lobster is a popular specialty. Over 30 eating establishments compete for business, ranging from fast food (Johnny&#39;s Reef), to The Lobster Box, to the French Bistro SK, and The Black Whale, famous for its desserts. The Snug is an Irish pub connected to the City Island Diner. While a few of the restaurants close during the winter months, most are open year-round.</p><br>
<p>The City Island Nautical Museum displays maritime artifacts and antiques. It is located at 190 Fordham Street and is open only on Saturday and Sunday afternoons (other times by appointment). Admission is five dollars and there is a small gift shop. The building was PS17 in its prior life.</p><br>
<p>The Island has landmarks such as the Samuel Pell Mansion on City Island Avenue, near St. Mary Star of the Sea Church. It is where Arsenic and Old Lace (1969) was filmed for TV. There are a number of old Victorian mansions located throughout City Island, mostly on the Sound side, complete with tall pointy spires and gables with gazebos, such as Delmours Point on Tier Street.</p><br>
<p>The City Island Theater Group is the local community theater that produces shows year round.</p><br>
<p>City Island Gold Honey is produced by honeybees from the six hive apiary of the Kheck-Gannon family on Minnieford Avenue. It is marketed by the Kaleidoscope Gallery and Sugar And Spice Restaurant.</p><br>
<h4>Boating</h4><br>
<p>The island has three yacht clubs situated on the Eastchester Bay side of the island. They are, from north to south, the Harlem Yacht Club, the City Island Yacht Club, and the Morris Yacht and Beach Club. The Touring Kayak Club is on the west side of the island. The North Minneford Yacht Club and the South Minneford Yacht Club are on the east side of the island. There are two active sail lofts (UK-Halsey and Doyle). The island also has several commercial marinas.</p><br>
<p>The island has what are called "special anchorages" where boats of all sizes are freely moored or anchored, and there are many docks with boat slips for mooring boats in a secure and restricted way. There are also many large piers around the island that can receive large ships.</p><br>
<p>The island is home to the Columbia University Sailing Team, whose fleet of dinghies is docked at City Island Yacht Club. The team comes from Manhattan four times a week to practice off the western shore of City Island. Fordham University&#39;s Sailing Team sails out of Morris Yacht and Beach Club.</p><br>
<p>Many of the boats which competed and won in the America&#39;s Cup in years past were built in the Nevins Boat Yard on City Island. The Eastchester Bay Yacht Racing Association is the major organizer for sailboat races in the area. J/24 sailboats are the active one design racing fleet on the island.</p><br>
<p>A small fleet of head boats takes paying passengers on fishing trips to Long Island Sound. Smaller boats are also available for rent by the day. The sail and power boating industry has been declining in recent years, as boatyards are being sold and being converted into condominiums.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>City Island is within the New York City Department of Education.</p><br>
<p>The School of St. Mary Star of the Sea is a Catholic grade school, which serves grades PreK-8 on City Island, and 175 City Island School, located on City Island Avenue, serves grades K-8 for the island.</p><br>
<p>On Jan 22, 2013 The New York Times reported ( Article by Sharon Otterman ) that St Marys Star Of Sea school which has served the community for decades was among the 24 Catholic schools selected to be closed by years end.</p><br>
<p>The former Public School 17 houses the City Island Historical Society and Nautical Museum. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Starting in 1760, a small rope ferry ran between the mainland and City Island. In 1873 a bridge was built by a syndicate of City Island businessmen, including G.W. Horton, Ben Hedgeman, and David Carll. It was replaced by steel, three-lane City Island Bridge in 1901. The New York City Department of Transportation had proposed replacing it with a cable-stayed bridge hanging from a 160-foot tower but the design faced intense community opposition and the city submitted a redesign which was approved. A temporary bridge was opened in 2015 which allowed for the demolition of the old bridge and the future construction of its replacement.</p><br>
<p>There is another small, private bridge on the northeastern end of City Island connecting it to High Island, site of the radio transmitter for New York stations WFAN (660 AM) and WCBS (880 AM); a security gate prevents public access.</p><br>
<p>In the 1910s, the Pelham Park and City Island Railroad provided rail service to the island.</p><br>
<p>Bus transportation consists of the Bx29 local route, and two rush-hour extended round-trips of the BxM8 express route, both run by MTA New York City Bus. There is also the City Island Seaside Trolley run by the Bronx Tourism Council.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<h3>Films</h3><br>
<p>A very early film shot in a City Island studio was Richard III (1912), the oldest surviving American feature-length film.</p><br>
<p>The movie City Island (2009), starring Andy García and Julianna Margulies, is set on City Island and was shot there. The film won the Audience Favorite Award at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival.</p><br>
<p>Butterfield 8 starring Elizabeth Taylor</p><br>
<p>Long Day&#39;s Journey into Night (1962), with Katharine Hepburn</p><br>
<p>Awakenings, with Robert De Niro and Robin Williams</p><br>
<p>Love Is All There Is, with Lainie Kazan and Angelina Jolie</p><br>
<p>A Bronx Tale, with De Niro and Chazz Palminteri, which featured the City Island Bridge and one scene filmed in the parking lot of Johnny&#39;s Reef Restaurant.</p><br>
<p>Don&#39;t Say a Word at the Hart Island Ferry and Hart Island, with Michael Douglas</p><br>
<p>Wes Anderson&#39;s The Royal Tenenbaums was filmed at Delmours Point, which is the mansion where Long Days Journey into Night was filmed.</p><br>
<p>Louis Lombardi shot many scenes from Dough Boys (2008) on the island.</p><br>
<p>The Groomsmen (2006), directed by Edward Burns, was filmed at many locations on City Island.</p><br>
<p>Margot at the Wedding (2006), starring Nicole Kidman and Ciarán Hinds, which was filmed on City Island Avenue and other locations on the island.</p><br>
<p>Michael Douglas returned to City Island with actor Danny DeVito to film Solitary Man (2009) in the City Island Diner.</p><br>
<p>Jessica Alba was filmed in An Invisible Sign of My Own (2009) there.</p><br>
<p>The documentary film Weiner (2016) includes a scene at a meeting of Democratic party voters on City Island.</p><br>
<h3>Literature</h3><br>
<p>James Gregory Kingstons novel, The City Island Messenger, uses City Island as the backdrop for a story about a young boy delivering Western Union telegrams that break the sad news of soldiers deaths to families, over a span of a week during World War II, during the Battle of Midway</p><br>
<p>In Kurt Vonnegut&#39;s novel Bluebeard, the character Dan Gregory states that his 80 ft yacht, the Ararat, was dry-docked on City Island</p><br>
<h3>Production company</h3><br>
<p>Since 2002, the film production company Harrington Talents has had its offices and studio located on City Island. Notable celebrities who have worked on their productions include rapper and actor Ice-T, and professional wrestler Bruno Sammartino.</p><br>
<h3>Television</h3><br>
<p>Numerous television shows have featured or been shot on City Island. For example:</p><br>
<p>Car 54, Where Are You?</p><br>
<p>Comedian Jerry Seinfeld visited City Island Diner on the island with Ricky Gervais in one of the webisodes of his Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee</p><br>
<p>Coronet Blue</p><br>
<p>The Law & Order episode "Maritime" showed the City Island bridge.</p><br>
<p>The Law & Order: Criminal Intent episode "Sound Bodies", which was based on a real-life story of several local teenagers who drowned in Long Island Sound near City Island.</p><br>
<p>The Law & Order: Special Victims Unit episode "Melancholy Pursuit" partially takes place on City Island.</p><br>
<p>The fictional city of Hyde in the series finale of the US version of Life on Mars was filmed on City Island.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Notable current and former residents of the island include:</p><br>
<p>Anthony Amato (1920–2011) and Sally Amato (1917–2000), founders and former directors of Amato Opera</p><br>
<p>Harry Carey (1878–1947), one of silent film&#39;s earliest superstars</p><br>
<p>Adolfo Carrión Jr. (born 1961), former Bronx Borough President</p><br>
<p>Clinton Leupp, drag performer, better known by his drag persona "Miss Coco Peru" and actor (films To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar and Trick)</p><br>
<p>Bruce McRae (1867–1927), silent film actor</p><br>
<p>George Meany (1894–1980), union leader who served as president of the AFL-CIO</p><br>
<p>Henry B. Nevins (1878–1959), master yacht builder and author</p><br>
<p>Vincent Pastore (born 1946), actor known for his portrayal of Salvatore "Big Pussy" Bonpensiero on the TV series The Sopranos</p><br>
<p>Carlos D. Ramirez (1946–1999), publisher of El Diario La Prensa</p><br>
<p>Red Buttons (1919-2006), comedian-actor who got his start at Ryan&#39;s Inn wearing a bellhop uniform with large red buttons.</p><br>
<p>Oliver Sacks (1933–2015), who wrote the book Awakenings, whose adaptation was filmed at a house similar to his own, but on a different street on the island</p><br>
<p>Salvatore Santoro (1913–2000), Lucchese crime family underboss</p><br>
<p>Frank Scalice (1893-1957), Italian-American mobster who led the future Gambino crime family from 1930 to 1931, and was underboss from 1951 to 1957.</p><br>
<p>Richard Waring (1911–1994), television and film actor</p><br>
<p>The River Dee , in south-west Scotland, flows from its source in Loch Dee amongst the Galloway Hills, firstly to Clatteringshaws Loch, then into Loch Ken, where it joins the Water of Ken. From there, the Dee flows 15 mi southwards to Kirkcudbright, and into Kirkcudbright Bay to reach the Solway. The distance is just over 38 mi in total. Together with its tributaries, the Dee&#39;s total catchment area is over 400 square miles.</p><br>
<p>The river is dammed at Tongland, two miles (3 km) upriver from Kirkcudbright. This was constructed as part of the Galloway hydro-electric power scheme in the 1930s. Also at this site is Tongland Bridge, built in 1806 by Thomas Telford.</p><br>
<p>The ruins of Threave Castle stand on an island on the lower part of the Dee.</p><br>
<p>In Ptolemys 2nd century work Geography it is recorded as Dēoúa. This form represents a development of Proto-Indo-European *deiueh2- a goddess&#39;, which occurs in many Celtic river-names.</p><br>
<p>The Dee has also been known as the Black Water of Dee because of its dark colour in the stretch above Loch Ken.</p><br>
<p>Loch Ken and the Dee Marshes were together designated a Ramsar site on August 21, 1992.</p><br>
<h2>Tarff Water</h2><br>
<p>The Tarff Water enters the Dee as a right-bank tributary near Tongland in the tidal stretch of the river. The headwater streams of the Tarff drain the tract of country between the villages of Laurieston and Ringford including Loch Mannoch. The river should not be confused with the similarly named Tarf Water which is a tributary of the River Bladnoch further west in Galloway.</p><br>
<p>The name Tarff derives from the Proto-Indo-European root *tauro- bull, aurochs. Like other examples of this name in southern Scotland, Tarff is Gaelic in form but is likely to derive in turn from an earlier Cumbric cognate.</p><br>
<p>Fort William and Mary was a colonial fortification in Britain&#39;s worldwide system of defenses, manned by soldiers of the Province of New Hampshire who reported directly to the royal governor. The fort, originally known as "The Castle", was situated on the island of New Castle, New Hampshire, at the mouth of the Piscataqua River estuary. It was renamed Fort William and Mary circa 1692, after the accession of the monarchs William III and Mary II to the British throne. It was captured by Patriot forces, recaptured, and later abandoned by the British in the Revolutionary War. The fort was renamed Fort Constitution in 1808 following rebuilding. The fort was further rebuilt and expanded through 1899 and served actively through World War II.</p><br>
<h2>Colonial period</h2><br>
<p>First fortified by the British prior to 1632, the fort guarded access to the harbor at Portsmouth and served as the colony&#39;s main munitions depot. The fort also served to protect Kittery, Maine, on the opposite shore, which was raided numerous times by the tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy during the French and Indian Wars. Shadrach Walton commanded the fort during different periods at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century.</p><br>
<h2>American Revolution</h2><br>
<p>In 1774, it was the only permanently manned military post in New Hampshire.</p><br>
<h3>1774 Raid</h3><br>
<p>On December 14, 1774, local Patriots from the Portsmouth area, led by John Langdon, stormed the post (overcoming a six-man caretaker detachment) and seized the garrison&#39;s powder, which was distributed through several New Hampshire towns for potential use in the looming struggle against Great Britain. On December 15, 1774, patriots led by John Sullivan again raided the fort, this time seizing numerous cannons.</p><br>
<p>As tensions increased before the American Revolutionary War, Lord Norths ministry became concerned that the profusion of arms in New England would lead to bloodshed. On October 19, 1774, King George III issued a confidential Order in Council forbidding the export of arms and powder to America. Word of the order reached operatives in New Englands patriot movement.</p><br>
<p>The port at Boston had been closed in punishment for the Boston Tea Party, and the Portsmouth Committee of Correspondence kept in close contact with friends of liberty in Boston. Tensions in Massachusetts nearly erupted into violence in the fall of 1774 when redcoats seized provincial gunpowder during the so-called Powder Alarm. Upon learning of the Order in Council, patriots feared that the British military would make another attempt to seize colonial stores. Patriots in Rhode Island moved munitions from the fort at Newport inland for safekeeping without incident. In Massachusetts, rumors flew that troops from Boston were headed to reinforce Fort William and Mary and seize its powder and arms. On December 13, 1774, four months before his more famous ride in Massachusetts, Paul Revere rode to Portsmouth to sound the alarm.</p><br>
<p>On the morning of December 14, Patriots from the town of New Castle unsuccessfully attempted to take the gunpowder at Fort William and Mary by trickery. Meanwhile, John Langdon made his way through Portsmouth with a drummer, collecting a crowd to descend on the fort. Several hundred men responded to his call, setting out for the Castle by way of the Piscataqua River. Only one provincial officer, Captain John Cochran, and five provincial soldiers were stationed at Fort William and Mary. Despite the odds against them, they refused to capitulate to Patriot demands. When Langdons men rushed the fort, the defenders opened fire with three cannons and a volley of musket shot. Patriots stormed the walls and Cochrans men engaged in hand-to-hand fighting before being subdued by an overwhelming number of raiders. Langdons volunteers not only broke open the powder house and absconded with about 100 barrels of gunpowder but, to three cheers, hauled down the forts huge British flag. Several injuries but no deaths occurred in the engagement, and Cochran and his men were released after about an hour and a half of confinement.</p><br>
<p>The next day, additional rebel forces arrived in Portsmouth from across the colony, as well as from Maine. Led by John Sullivan, the rebels returned to the fort late on the night of December 15, overran the post without gunfire and removed muskets, military supplies and 16 cannons marked as the property of the King. British authorities declared the raids - for which Sullivan later received a stipend from the Continental Congress - high treason.</p><br>
<h3>Aftermath</h3><br>
<p>In response to a call for aid from Boston by British Governor John Wentworth, the armed hydrographic survey sloop Canceaux arrived to keep the peace in New Hampshire on December 17, followed by the twenty-gun frigate Scarborough on December 19, with numerous Royal Marines aboard. The Governor and his family were driven from their home in Portsmouth in the summer of 1775 and forced to take refuge in the fort, guarded by the guns of British warships. Britain finally gave up on the colony of New Hampshire in order to focus attention on the military situation in Massachusetts and abandoned the fort, removing its remaining equipment to Boston along with Governor Wentworth.</p><br>
<p>The supplies captured by Patriots in December 1774 were later used by New Hampshire&#39;s forces against the British military, including in the Siege of Boston. Conversely, supplies (including numerous cannon) left in the fort by Patriots following the raids were subsequently put to use by the British forces. After the British abandoned the fort in the Revolution, the Patriots probably renamed it Fort Hancock.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Constitution</h2><br>
<p>Following the Revolution the fort was called Castle Fort or Fort Castle. On July 4, 1809, an accidental explosion marred Independence Day celebrations at the fort, killing a number of soldiers and civilians. The Secretary of War&#39;s report on fortifications for December 1811 describes Fort Constitution as "an enclosed irregular work of masonry, mounting 36 heavy guns... (with) brick barracks for two companies..." During the War of 1812 the fort was manned and expanded, Walbach Tower, a Martello tower with a single 32-pounder cannon, being built in 1814.</p><br>
<p>During the Civil War, Fort Constitution was projected to be rebuilt as a three-tiered granite fortress under the Third System of US fortifications. However, advances in weaponry, particularly armored, steam-powered warships with heavy rifled guns, rendered the masonry design obsolete before it was finished. The fort&#39;s construction was abandoned in 1867 with the Second System fort largely intact and two walls from the Third System built around parts of it. At some point in the Civil War era, four 100-pounder (6.4 inch, 163 mm) Parrott rifles were mounted at the fort, and remained there at least through late 1903.</p><br>
<p>In 1897 construction began on Battery Farnsworth, located under the hill on which Walbach Tower stands, as part of the large-scale Endicott Program of seacoast fortifications. It was part of the Coast Defenses of Portsmouth, along with Fort Stark and Fort Foster. The battery was completed in 1899. Named for Brigadier General Elon J. Farnsworth, the installation included two 8-inch (203 mm) M1888 guns on disappearing carriages. The battery was accompanied in 1904 by Battery Hackleman, with two 3-inch (76 mm) M1903 guns on pedestal mounts. A mine casemate for an underwater minefield in the harbor was built; Battery Hackleman was built primarily to defend this minefield against minesweepers.</p><br>
<p>After the American entry into World War I in early 1917, many guns were removed from coast defenses for potential service on the Western Front. Both 8-inch guns of Battery Farnsworth were removed for use as railway artillery in October 1917 and were not returned to the fort. In 1920 a mine casemate was built next to Battery Farnsworth to replace a similar facility at Fort Stark.</p><br>
<p>In World War II Battery Hacklemans 3-inch guns were sent to a new battery of the same name at Fort H. G. Wright on Fishers Island, New York. They were replaced by two 3-inch (76 mm) M1902 guns from Battery Hays at nearby Fort Stark. In 1940-1944 the Harbor Defenses of Portsmouth were garrisoned by the 22nd Coast Artillery Regiment. Also, a mine observation station was built atop Battery Farnsworth. Battery Hackleman was disarmed by 1948 and the fort was turned over to the Coast Guard. Battery Hackleman was demolished, but Battery Farnsworth can still be seen.</p><br>
<p>Given back to the state in 1961, Fort Constitution State Park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, and is today open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>The lighthouse</h2><br>
<p>Since 1771 the fort has been home to a lighthouse. The current installation, the Portsmouth Harbor Light, was completed in 1878. Its Fourth Order Fresnel lens remains a valuable aid to navigation. The tower and the grounds immediately around it are open for scheduled tours.</p><br>
<p>Monemvasia  is a town and a municipality in Laconia, Greece. The town is located on a small island off the east coast of the Peloponnese. The island is linked to the mainland by a short causeway 200m in length. Its area consists mostly of a large plateau some 100 metres above sea level, up to 300 m wide and 1 km long, the site of a powerful medieval fortress. The town walls and many Byzantine churches remain from the medieval period. The seat of the municipality is the town Molaoi.</p><br>
<p>The towns name derives from two Greek words, mone and emvasia, meaning "single entrance". Its Italian form, Malvasia, gave its name to Malmsey wine. Monemvasias nickname is the Gibraltar of the East or The Rock.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early History</h3><br>
<p>While uninhabited in antiquity, the rock may have been the site of a Minoan trading post. Pausanias, the renowned Greek traveler and geographer, referred to the site as "Akra Minoa", which translates to "Minoan Promontory".</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine, Venetian, Ottoman rule</h3><br>
<p>The town and fortress were founded in 583 by inhabitants of the mainland seeking refuge from the Slavic and the Avaric invasion of Greece. A history of the invasion and occupation of the Peloponnese was recorded in the medieval Chronicle of Monemvasia.</p><br>
<p>From the 10th century AD, the town developed into an important trade and maritime centre. The fortress withstood the Arab and Norman invasions in 1147; farm fields that fed up to 30 men were tilled inside the fortress. William II of Villehardouin took it in 1248, on honourable terms, after three years of siege; in 1259 William was captured by the Greeks after the battle of Pelagonia and in 1262 it was retroceded to Michael VIII Palaiologos as part of William&#39;s ransom.</p><br>
<p>It remained part of the Byzantine Empire until 1460, becoming the seat of an imperial governor, a landing place for Byzantine operations against the Franks, the main port of shipment (if not always production) for Malmsey wine, and one of the most dangerous lairs of corsairs in the Levant. The Emperors gave it valuable privileges, attracting Roger de Lluria who sacked the lower town in 1292. The town welcomed the Catalan Company on its way eastward in 1302. In 1397 the Despot of the Morea, Theodore I Palaiologos, deposed the local dynast of Monemvasia, who appealed to Sultan Bayezid I and was reinstated by Turkish troops. In 1419 the rock appears to have come into the possession of Venice, though it soon returned to the Despot. About 1401, the historian George Sphrantzes was born in the town. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 Monemvasia held out against the threats of Sultan Mehmed II in 1458 and 1460, when it became the only remaining domain of the Despot of the Morea, Thomas Palaiologos, claimant of the Imperial throne. He had no forces to defend it; he offered it to the Sultan, and finally sold it to the Pope.</p><br>
<p>By 1464 the inhabitants found the Pope&#39;s representative feeble and the Pope unable to protect them; they admitted a Venetian garrison. The town was fairly prosperous under Venetian rule until the peace of 1502-3, in which it lost its farm lands, source of its food supply and of Malmsey wine. The food had to come by sea or from Turkish-held lands, and the cultivation of wine languished under Turkish rule. The rock was governed by the Venetians until the treaty of 1540, which cost the Republic Nauplia and Monemvasia, her last two possessions on mainland Greece. Those inhabitants who did not wish to live under Turkish rule were given lands elsewhere. The Ottomans then ruled the town until the brief Venetian recovery in 1690, then again from 1715 to 1821. It was known as "Menekşe" ("Violet" in Turkish) during Ottoman rule and was a sanjak (province) centre in the Morea Eyalet.</p><br>
<p>The commercial importance of the town continued until the Orlov Revolt (1770) in the Russo-Turkish War, which saw its importance decline severely.</p><br>
<p>The town was liberated from Ottoman rule on July 23, 1821 by Tzannetakis Grigorakis who entered the town with his private army during the Greek War of Independence.</p><br>
<h3>The town today</h3><br>
<p>In 1971, Monemvasia became linked with the rest of the outside world through a bridge on the western side that connects to GR-86.</p><br>
<p>In more recent history, the town has seen a resurgence in importance with increasing numbers of tourists visiting the site and the region. The medieval buildings have been restored, and many of them converted to hotels.</p><br>
<p>For the past few years, on July 23, an independence day celebration has been held in the main port. Speeches are made and the story of Tzannetakis Grigorakis, and his men, is recounted in both Greek and English. Inhabitants and visitors can gather to watch as a ship, built every year, is filled with pyrotechnics and set on fire.</p><br>
<p>The 1987 horror movie The Wind was filmed here.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The municipality of Monemvasia was formed during the 2011 local government reform, through the merger of the following 5 former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Asopos</p><br>
<p>Molaoi</p><br>
<p>Monemvasia</p><br>
<p>Voies</p><br>
<p>Zarakas</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 949.3 km&sup2, the municipal unit an area of 209.0 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island of Monemvasia was separated from the mainland by an earthquake in 375 AD. The majority of the island&#39;s area is a plateau about 100 metres above sea level, and the town of the same name is built on the slope to the south-east of the rock, overlooking Palaia Monemvasia bay. Many of the streets are narrow and fit only for pedestrian and donkey traffic. A small hamlet of about 10 houses lies to the northwest.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<h2>Places of interest</h2><br>
<p>Christos Elkomenos Square</p><br>
<p>The church of Agia Sophia</p><br>
<p>The fortress</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Loukas Notaras (d. 1453), last Byzantine Megas Doux</p><br>
<p>Yiannis Ritsos (1909–1990), poet</p><br>
<p>Bridge Mountain is a mountain located in the Spring Mountain range of southern Nevada. It is located on land managed by the United States Bureau of Land Management as the Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area, part of the Rainbow Mountain Wilderness. Bridge Mountain is named for the natural feature of a bridge-like natural arch of sandstone near the summit.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking Route</h2><br>
<p>The Bridge Mountain hike begins at the Rocky Gap Summit Trailhead, accessible by 4WD drive only. Hikers can park at the north Willow Springs campground and walk 5 mi to the summit. Alternatively, hikers can turn North from Highway 160 and drive 7.5 mi North on the Lovell Canyon Road and park where the pavement ends. The hike from here to the summit is about 3.3 mi and has less elevation gain.</p><br>
<p>The hike climbs over the crest of the shale formed, north-south oriented Spring Mountain Ranges, and rewards the hiker with panoramic views of the Red Rock Escarpment below. A marked trail along the crest descends to the sandstone escarpment. Here, steep free climbing down a chimney—possible without technical gear—takes the hiker to a narrow neck of rock that separates the drainages of Pine Creek to the south and Icebox Canyon to the north. The hike is marked by cairns that show the route to proceed up toward the base of a cliff, angling left just above the northern drop-off. The hike ascends the slickrock here, in a crack in the rock. After about 150 ft, the route comes to a point where there is a broad, flat ledge on the left, then continues about several feet to the left where a wider gully climbs to the top of the cliff. This leads up to the natural bridge for which the mountain is named. The bridge itself is the remains of a tinaja, or water tank, that eroded and left a remnant of the side, now a bridge.</p><br>
<p>In order to get to the top, one must climb over a fallen tree, bringing the person within reach of several pools, access to the bridge, and near the Hidden Forest (see below). Heading south for several hundred feet, one then must climb along a steep, difficult ridge to get near the top. At the top, a small ammunition box contains the peak&#39;s sign-in book.</p><br>
<p>In a cleft in the sandstone of Bridge Mountain&#39;s summit, there is a small hidden forest of Ponderosa pine. Expansive views of the Las Vegas Valley can be seen from the Eastern end of the hidden forest.</p><br>
<p>Santa Barbara Island  is a small island of the Channel Islands archipelago in Southern California. It is protected within Channel Islands National Park, and its marine ecosystem is part of the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island is located about 38 mi from the Palos Verdes Peninsula coast of Los Angeles County, Southern California, (near Ventura County and west of Greater Los Angeles.).</p><br>
<p>With a total area of about 1 square mile (640 acres) it is the smallest of the eight Channel Islands. It is the southern-most island in the Channel Islands National Park. The highest peak on the island is Signal Hill, at 634 feet (193 m).</p><br>
<p>Although closer to mainland Ventura County and Los Angeles County, the island is part of Santa Barbara County (United States Census Bureau Block 3012, Block Group 3, Census Tract 29.10). It is the only one of the four southern Channel Islands included in the Channel Islands National Park, which also encompasses all four northern islands. According to the 2000 census the island is uninhabited and has a total land area of 1.0136 square miles (2.625 km).</p><br>
<p>Like most of the Channel Islands, it can be seen from the mainland on exceptionally clear days (usually in winter).</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>While the island is not a volcano it is composed primarily of Miocene volcanic rocks (basalt) interbedded with marine sediments.</p><br>
<p>The steep wave-cut cliffs of its shoreline indicate that this is one of the younger Channel Islands. It exhibits at least six marine terraces; evidence of repeated tectonic uplift and subsidence (so called porpoising). Arch Point, on the north-east shore of the island is a 130 ft arch caused by wave erosion of fault weakened rock.</p><br>
<p>Offshore, there are two named rocks: Sutil Island off the southwest end (12 acre) and Shag Rock off the northerly shore (1 acre) .</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Native American peoples, probably the Chumash and Tongva, occupied Santa Barbara Island periodically for millennia. Archaeological sites dating to as much as 4,000 years ago have been documented on the island, which may have served as a stopover or refuge point for voyagers between the mainland and the other Channel Islands.</p><br>
<p>The first European visitor to the Channel Islands was Portuguese explorer João Rodrigues Cabrilho in 1542. He made no specific mention of this island.</p><br>
<p>Sixty years later, the island was named by Spanish explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno, who visited the island on December 4, 1602, the feast day dedicated to Saint Barbara.</p><br>
<p>In 1852, Charles Melville Scammon, in the brig Mary Helen, hunted northern elephant seals and sea lions on Santa Barbara Island. In December 1934, the steam-schooner California spent a week anchored off the island, processing blue, fin, and sperm whales caught by her two steam-driven whale catchers Hawk and Port Saunders.</p><br>
<h2>Natural History</h2><br>
<p>Santa Barbara Island is home to a large sea lion rookery and seabird nesting colonies. It is also home to the largest breeding colony for Scripps&#39;s murrelet, a threatened seabird species. Scripps&#39;s murrelet is listed as vulnerable because so much of its breeding takes place on such a small and isolated island.</p><br>
<p>Santa Barbara Island live-forever (Dudleya traskiae) is a succulent plant endemic to the island. A variety of St. Catherine&#39;s lace buckwheat (Eriogonum giganteum), Eriogonum giganteum var. compactum or Santa Barbara Island buckwheat, is endemic to and particularly rare on Santa Barbara Island.</p><br>
<p>San Miguel Island  is the westernmost of California&#39;s Channel Islands, located across the Santa Barbara Channel in the Pacific Ocean, within Santa Barbara County, California. San Miguel is the sixth-largest of the eight Channel Islands at 9,325 acres, including offshore islands and rocks. Prince Island, 700 m off the northeastern coast, measures 35 acre in area. The island, at its farthest extent, is 8 mi long and 3.7 mi wide.</p><br>
<p>San Miguel Island is part of Channel Islands National Park, and almost all of the island (8,960 acre) has also been designated as an archaeological district on the National Register of Historic Places. This westernmost Channel Island receives northwesterly winds and severe weather from the open ocean. The cold and nutrient-rich water surrounding the island is home to a diverse array of sea life that is not found on the southern islands.</p><br>
<p>San Miguel Island, together with numerous small islets around it, is defined by the United States Census Bureau as Block 3010, Block Group 3, Census Tract 29.10 of Santa Barbara County, California. The island is uninhabited. Highest peak is San Miguel Hill, at 831 ft. Submerged rocks make the nearly 28 mi coastline a mariner&#39;s nightmare.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological research has shown that San Miguel Island was first settled by humans at least 12,000 years ago, when San Miguel was still part of the larger Santarosae Island that connected the northern Channel Islands when sea levels were lower near the end of the Last Glacial. Because the northern Channel Islands have not been connected to the adjacent mainland in recent geological history, the Paleo-Indians who first settled the island clearly had boats and other maritime technologies.Erlandson, J.M., T.C. Rick, T.J. Braje, M. Casperson, B. Culleton, B. Fulfrost, T. Garcia, D. Guthrie, N. Jew, D. Kennett, M.L. Moss, L. Reeder, C. Skinner, J. Watts, & L. Willis</p><br>
<p>2011 Paleoindian seafaring, maritime technologies, and coastal foraging on California’s Channel Islands. Science 441:1181-1185. San Miguel was occupied by the ancestors of the Chumash people for many millennia, who developed a complex and rich maritime culture based on marine fishing, hunting, and gathering. Rough seas and risky landings did not daunt the Chumash people. They called the island Tuquan in the Chumash language, and for many centuries, they built and used sophisticated canoes, called tomols, made from sewn planks caulked with asphaltum (bitumen). In tomols, they fished and hunted in island waters and participated in active trade with their neighbors on the other islands and mainland.</p><br>
<p>The first European explorer to land was the Portuguese explorer, João Rodrigues Cabrillo in 1542, who commanded three Spanish ships that spent several weeks on the island while exploring the Santa Barbara Channel and California Coast. Cabrillo died on the island and is thought by many to have been buried there. The last of the island Chumash were removed to mainland missions and towns in the 1820s, leaving San Miguel largely uninhabited until ranchers raised sheep there from 1850 to 1948. One of the ranch families that homesteaded the longest was the Lesters, a family of four that left the island at the time of Pearl Harbor due to the dangers posed by the war.</p><br>
<p>Chinese fishermen also utilized the island in the late 1800s as a base for commercial abalone fishing, drying the meat in camps on the island for trade to Chinese communities in California and overseas. Later, the United States Navy used the island for a bombing range.</p><br>
<h2>Park Service operations</h2><br>
<p>The National Park Service maintains two airstrips, a ranger station and a research station on San Miguel Island. The Island is normally staffed by a ranger who enforces park laws, while also providing interpretive services for public visitors. The island also hosts scientists who study pinnipeds and manage the island fox captive breeding program that is conducted on the island. Volunteer interpretive rangers often fill in for regularly paid rangers due to budget deficits within the park.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>In July, 2011, researchers discovered that a "loomerie" (breeding colony) of the California common murre (Uria aalge californica) had returned to Prince Island, an islet off San Miguel Island, for the first time since 1912. Like penguins, the football-size black-and-white seabirds use their wings to "fly" deep underwater, but unlike penguins, they also fly in the air. This colony disappeared nearly a century ago, likely because of egg harvesting, but now their southern range is re-established.</p><br>
<p>In the 1960s, northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) successfully recolonized San Miguel Island, making the island the 3rd American (and southernmost) breeding colony. The first seals had flipper tags identifying them as being from the Pribilof or Commander Islands in the Bering Sea. Today the San Miguel colony numbers around 10,000 animals.</p><br>
<p>The pygmy mammoth and the San Miguel Island Spotted Skunk are two of the extinct species. The island fox still lives on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Weather</h2><br>
<p>San Miguel Island does not receive protection from the open ocean as do the other Channel Islands. Most of the time a strong northwest wind blows across the island. These winds typically exceed 25 mph and can surpass 50 mph. When strong high pressure is over the mainland, the winds often cease.</p><br>
<p>Heavy fog is common on the island, especially during May and June. On warmer days the fog will burn off only to have the strong northwest wind blow in additional fog from the open ocean. On foggy days the temperature will rarely exceed 55 &deg;F. Annual rainfall is about 17 inches, mostly falling between November and March.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>In May 2016, the island was reopened to tourism, following a two-year USA Navy survey over 18 miles of marked trails and high-use areas. The survey intended to remove any dangerous ordnance in those areas. The NPS escorts all visitors and limits visitors to the established trail system. The island will not be open at times when no NPS personnel are available to escort visitors. Visitors must now sign an access permit and liability waiver. Access permits are available at the boat and air concession offices and at a self-registration station at the Nidever Canyon trailhead on San Miguel Island.</p><br>
<p>Island Packers and Channel Islands Aviation have concession agreements to provide transportation to the Island. Island Packers has no scheduled trips for 2016. Channel Islands Aviation provides on-demand service. There is no transportation available on the islands. All areas must be accessed by foot, private boat or kayak.</p><br>
<h3>Landing</h3><br>
<p>8 foot are not uncommon in the Pacific between Santa Rosa Island and San Miguel Island. The Island has no pier so all public visitors arriving by sea arrive by skiff at Cuyler Harbor. Landing on the island can be challenging, as the surf can swamp the landing boat. During ideal weather, visitors are put ashore directly in front of the trail that leads into the interior of the island. When the swell is high, visitors might be placed on the beach to the east or west, depending upon conditions.</p><br>
<h3>Camping facilities</h3><br>
<p>San Miguel Island includes a campground with ten sites. Each campsite includes a picnic table, wind break and an animal-proof box. The campground includes one pit toilet. Fires are prohibited due to the high winds and the inability to extinguish them. Sturdy tents are recommended as the wind can exceed 50 mi/h, even during the summer. It is recommended that campers tie their tents to the wind break to keep them from blowing away when not being occupied.</p><br>
<h3>Hiking</h3><br>
<p>With the exception of the trail leading from the beach in Cuyler Harbor to the campground and ranger station, hiking is restricted to ranger-led outings. Many visitors participate in the 14 mi round trip hike to Point Bennett to view the thousands of elephant seals and sea lions that reside at the west end of the island during spring and summer. Another popular hike is to the Island&#39;s caliche forest. Caliche is a type of hardened calcium deposit.</p><br>
<h3>Water activities</h3><br>
<p>Visitors to the island are restricted to ocean access at Cuyler Harbor. This landing is well protected from the strong ocean swell that is driven from the northwest. Cuyler has a sandy beach and visitors will often find themselves sharing the beach with elephant seals. The water is generally below 60 °F (16 °C), making it cold without a wetsuit. During low tides the harbor offers a tide pool area at the east end of the beach. Sea kayaking is not recommended for the novice as high winds can develop without notice. Bathers, divers and kayakers should be aware and alert to the occurrence of great white sharks in these waters. It is unwise to enter the water in early morning or late afternoon to early evening hours when sharks are feeding close to shore.</p><br>
<p>According to the Los Angeles Times, "Great white sharks haunt the waters around San Miguel Island, where they feast on seals and sea lions." Urchin diver, James Robinson, is believed to have been killed by a shark off Harris Point in the area known as Shark Park in 1994.</p><br>
<p>Granville Island is a peninsula and shopping district in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. It is located across False Creek from Downtown Vancouver, under the south end of the Granville Street Bridge. The peninsula was once an industrial manufacturing area, but today it is now a hotspot for Vancouver tourism and entertainment. The area has received much acclaim in recent years for its buildings and shopping experience. The area was named after Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville.</p><br>
<p>The island is home to 275 businesses and facilities that employ more than 2,500 people and generates more than $215-million in economic activity each year.</p><br>
<p>Granville Island provides amenities such as a large public market, an extensive marina, a boutique hotel, the Emily Carr University of Art and Design (named in honour of the artist), Arts Umbrella, False Creek Community Centre, various performing arts theatres including Vancouver&#39;s only professional improvisational theatre company Vancouver Theatresports League, the Arts Club Theatre Company and Carousel Theatre, fine arts galleries, and variety of shopping areas.</p><br>
<p>The Granville Island Public Market features a farmers&#39; market, day vendors, and artists offering local Vancouver goods. There are 50 permanent retailers and over one-hundred day vendors in stalls throughout the market selling a variety of artisan cottage-industry foods and handmade crafts on a rotating schedule.</p><br>
<p>Granville Island Brewing Co. is also the name of a beer company which originated on Granville Island in 1984, but whose main base of operations was moved to Kelowna, British Columbia some time later. In 2009 it was purchased by Molson&#39;s Brewery and continues to brew small batches of its varieties at the Granville Island brewing original site, and offers beer tasting and tours of their brewing facilities.</p><br>
<p>Ocean Concrete is the longest-established tenant on the island, having set up shop there in 1917.</p><br>
<p>Granville Island is the central location of several annual festivals, including the Vancouver International Children&#39;s Festival, the Vancouver Fringe Festival, and the Vancouver Writers Fest.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Two companies, False Creek Ferries and Aquabus, provide ferry service from Granville Island to Downtown Vancouver including numerous stops in Yaletown, Downtown South/False Creek, and the West End as well as Vanier Park near Kitsilano Beach. Other water transportation options include a taxi service to Bowen Island provided by English Bay Launch and a number of private tours.</p><br>
<p>WESTCOAST Sightseeing and Vancouver Trolley Hop-On, Hop-Off services both have stops located at Granville Island.</p><br>
<p>Between 1998 and 2011, a free streetcar route was operated by the Vancouver Downtown Historic Railway between Granville Island and SkyTrain&#39;s Olympic Village in the SE False Creek neighbourhood. This streetcar is now permanently shut down.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The peninsula was originally used by First Nations as a fishing area.</p><br>
<p>The city of Vancouver was called Granville until it was renamed in 1886, but the former name was kept and given to Granville Street, which spanned the small inlet known as False Creek. False Creek in the late 19th century was more than twice todays size, and its tidal flats included a large permanent sandbar over which spanned the original, rickety, wooden Granville Street bridge. This sandbar, which would eventually become Granville Island, was first mapped by Captain George Henry Richards in the British Boundary Commissions naval expedition in 1858-59, and the island today conforms roughly to the size and shape documented at that time. A British Admiralty Chart of 1893 shows the island in greater detail and conforming even more accurately to today&#39;s Granville Island.</p><br>
<p>The first attempt to stabilize the sandbar by driving piles around the perimeter was an unofficial attempt to create some free real estate shortly after the creation of the original Granville Street bridge in 1889. The Federal government put a stop to the work as a menace to navigation, but the piles are still visible in a photo taken in 1891.</p><br>
<p>In 1915, with the port of Vancouver growing, the newly formed Vancouver Harbour Commission approved a reclamation project in False Creek for an industrial area. A 35 acre island, connected to the mainland by a combined road and rail bridge at its south end, was to be built. Almost 1,000,000 cubic yards of fill was dredged largely by a man named Alvin Kingston, from the surrounding waters of False Creek to create the island under the Granville Street Bridge. The total cost for the reclamation was $342,000. It was originally called Industrial Island, but Granville Island, named after the bridge that ran directly overhead, was the name that stuck.</p><br>
<p>The very first tenant, B.C. Equipment Ltd., set the standard by building a wood-framed machine shop, clad on all sides in corrugated tin, at the Island&#39;s western end. (Today the same structure houses part of the Granville Island Public Market.) The company repaired and assembled heavy equipment for mining and forestry industries and used barges for shipping.</p><br>
<p>By 1923 virtually every lot on the Island was occupied, mostly by similar corrugated-tin factories.</p><br>
<p>During the Great Depression, one of Vancouvers several hobo jungles sprang up on the False Creek flats opposite Granville Islands north shore. "Shackers" lived on the island, in town, or in floathouses, and survived by fishing and beachcombing and sold salmon, smelt, and wood door to door or at the public market on Main Street. They were basically self-sufficient and were left alone.</p><br>
<p>During the Second World War, Wrights Canadian Ropes on the island was Canadas biggest manufacturer of heavy-duty wire rope. Their Green Heart product was supplied to forestry and mining industries. A fire in 1953 gutted their Granville Island factory so they moved to south Vancouver in 1956.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, a federal order-in-council assigned management of the 14-hectare site to Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). The federal government invested $24.7 million there between 1973 and 1982. In 1979, the federal and provincial governments converted a 50,000 square foot building to the Public Market. In 1980, the Emily Carr University of Art & Design was added to the island.</p><br>
<p>Ron Basford, the Minister responsible for CMHC was, was referred to as Mr. Granville and was later recognized with the naming of Ron Basford Park on Granville Island.</p><br>
<p>In 2016, the federal government announced a commitment to develop a 2040 plan to redevelop the island, in part because the Emily Carr University was going to move off the island.</p><br>
<h2>Granville Island Public Market</h2><br>
<p>Caddo Lake  is a 25,400 acre lake and bayou  on the border between Texas and Louisiana, in northern Harrison County and southern Marion County in Texas and western Caddo Parish in Louisiana. The lake is named after the Southeastern culture of Native Americans called Caddoans or Caddo, who lived in the area until their expulsion in the 19th century. It is an internationally protected wetland under the Ramsar Convention and includes one of the largest flooded cypress forests in the United States. Caddo is one of Texas&#39;s few non-oxbow natural lakes and is the 2nd largest in the South; however, it was artificially altered by the addition of a dam in the 1900s.</p><br>
<h2>Formation</h2><br>
<p>According to Caddo legend, the lake was formed by the 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes. There may be some truth to the legend, as Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee was formed by that earthquake. Most geologists feel the lake was formed, either gradually or catastrophically, by the "Great Raft", a 100-mile (160-km) log jam on the Red River in Louisiana, possibly by flooding the existing low-lying basin.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Caddo Lake has been utilized by Native Americans for thousands of years, but substantial commercial development would only begin with invention of the steamboat and US annexation of Louisiana and Texas by treaty (Texas is the only State in the United States to have joined by treaty instead of annexation) in the 19th century. The cities of Port Caddo, Swanson&#39;s Landing, and Jefferson in Texas, and Mooringsport in Louisiana, had thriving riverboat ports on the lake. Gradually as the log jams were removed in the lake and the Red River by Captain Henry Miller Shreve and then by the Army Corps of Engineers, the lake changed shape and eventually fell over ten feet, destroying the East Texas ports and their riverboat industry.</p><br>
<p>Industry once again came to Caddo Lake with the discovery of oil beneath it. The world&#39;s first over water oil platform was completed in Caddo Lake in 1911. The Ferry Lake No. 1 was erected by Gulf Refining Company. The well bottomed at 2,185 ft and produced 450 barrels.</p><br>
<p>Oil derricks sprang up throughout the lake, around the turn of the 20th century, further damaging the fragile ecosystem. The oil industry left Caddo for richer fields at Kilgore and other locations in Texas. Texas tried to preserve parts of Caddo in 1934 by establishing a state park, constructed by the WPA. The establishment of the Longhorn Army Ammunition Plant on the shores of Caddo, in the mid-20th century, polluted large portions of the surrounding wetlands until its closure in the 1990s. Most of the former plant site is now a federal wildlife refuge.</p><br>
<p>An ecologist named Lionel Janes conducted a survey of Caddo Lake (called Ferry Lake at the time) in 1913 and 1914. Based on an examination of cross sections of bald cypress and hardwood trees and many dead stumps he estimated that the lake came into existence sometime between 1770 and 1780.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Wildlife inhabiting Caddo Lake includes owls, snakes, water fowl, eagles, and alligators.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation efforts</h2><br>
<p>In 1993 Caddo Lake preservation entered a renaissance, with the announcement that 7,000 acres (28 km²) of Caddo purchased by the Nature Conservancy were to be merged with the 483 acre (2 km²) Texas Caddo Lake State Park to become the Caddo Lake State Park and Wildlife Management Area. As a result of efforts by the Caddo Lake Institute (co-founded by Don Henley and Dwight K. Shellman), in October 1993 Caddo Lake became one of thirteen areas in the United States protected by the Ramsar Convention. As of 2003 Caddo Lake flora and fauna consisted of 189 species of trees and shrubs, 75 grasses, 42 woody vines, 216 kinds of birds, 90 fish and reptiles, and 47 mammals. One of these species, Crataegus opaca or mayhaw, produces fruit which is used for making jelly. Forty-four of Caddo&#39;s native species were either endangered, threatened or rare. From 2001 until 2003 Caddo Lake residents fought a legal battle with the City of Marshall, Texas over water rights.</p><br>
<p>Voices advocating preservation of Caddo Lake included rocker Don Henley, singer and songwriter for The Eagles.</p><br>
<h2>Current threat</h2><br>
<p>The lake is currently "under siege" by a fast-spreading, Velcro-like aquatic fern, Salvinia molesta, also known as Giant Salvinia. Accidentally introduced to the lake by boaters, the noxious weed doubles in size every two to four days, rapidly killing off life below the surface. Most of the growth of the plant is currently on the Louisiana side, where officials have been focused on recovering from damage caused by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005.</p><br>
<p>Efforts at removing the weed have included biological means via beetles that normally eat the weed but cannot survive the Texas cold and now include herbicide. The Texas Water Resource Institutes Caddo Lake Salvinia Eradication Project is evaluating multiple methods of eradication. See TWRIs website for details.</p><br>
<h2>Texas Bigfoot</h2><br>
<p>Since 1965 Texas&#39;s Caddo Lake has had hundreds of alleged Bigfoot sightings according to the North American Wood Ape Conservancy (NAWAC), as reported in the Travel Channel 2006 documentary Bigfoot.</p><br>
<h2>Cities and towns on Caddo Lake</h2><br>
<p>Karnack, Texas</p><br>
<p>Mooringsport, Louisiana</p><br>
<p>Oil City, Louisiana</p><br>
<p>Swansons Landing, Texas</p><br>
<p>Uncertain, Texas</p><br>
<p>Heaven Lake  is a crater lake on the border between China and North Korea. It lies within a caldera atop the volcanic Paektu Mountain, a part of the Baekdudaegan mountain range and the Changbai mountain range. It is located partly in Ryanggang Province, North Korea, at {{coord|42.006|N|128.057|E}}, and partly in Jilin Province, northeastern China.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and limnology</h2><br>
<p>The caldera which contains Heaven Lake was created by a major eruption in 969 AD (± 20 years).</p><br>
<p>The lake has a surface elevation of 2,189.1 m. The lake covers an area of 9.82 km² with a south-north length of 4.85 km and east-west length of 3.35 km. The average depth of the lake is 213 m and maximum depth of 384 m. From mid-October to mid-June, it is typically covered with ice.</p><br>
<h2>Names and legends</h2><br>
<p>In ancient Chinese literature, Tianchi also refers to Nanming (南冥 sometimes translated as "southern sea").</p><br>
<p>Some other well-known lakes named Tianchi include those in Xinjiang and Taiwan.</p><br>
<p>North Korean propaganda claims that Kim Jong-il was born near the lake on the mountain. In accordance with this, North Korean news agencies reported that on his death, the ice on the lake cracked "so loud, it seemed to shake the heavens and the Earth."</p><br>
<h2>Lake Tianchi Monster</h2><br>
<p>Heaven Lake is also alleged to be home to the Lake Tianchi Monster.</p><br>
<p>On September 6, 2007, Zhuo Yongsheng (director of a TV station&#39;s news center run by the administration office of the nature reserve at Mount Changbaishan, Jilin), shot a 20-minute video of 6 seal-like, finned "Lake Tianchi Monsters", near the border with the Democratic People&#39;s Republic of Korea (DPRK). He sent pictures of the Loch Ness Monster-type creatures to Xinhua&#39;s Jilin provincial bureau. One of them showed the creatures swimming in 3 pairs, in parallel. Another showed them together, leaving ripples on the volcanic lake.</p><br>
<p>Bitter Lake is a small lake in northwest Seattle, Washington, USA.</p><br>
<p>The lake covers 19 acres (77,000 m²), with a mean depth of 16 feet (5 m) and a maximum depth of 31 feet (9 m). Until 1913, a sawmill was located at its southwest corner. Tannic acid from logs dumped into the lake gave its water a bitter taste and the lake itself a name. The Duwamish called the lake "Blackcaps on the Sides" (Lushootseed: cHálqWadee), denoting the blackcap (Rubus leucodermis) plants that grew along the shores.</p><br>
<p>It is a glacial lake, its basin having been dug 15,000 years ago by the Puget Lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which also created Lake Washington, Union, Green and Haller Lakes.</p><br>
<p>The Seattle-to-Everett Interurban streetcar reached the lake in 1906, and the Bitter Lake neighborhood was annexed by Seattle in 1954.</p><br>
<p>The lake is situated between Greenwood Avenue North to the west, Linden Avenue North to the east, North 137th Street to the north, and North 130th Street to the south. Bitter Lake drains through a piped outlet at its southeast end that eventually flows into Lake Union.</p><br>
<p>Garfield Park is a 184 acre urban park located in the East Garfield Park neighborhood on Chicago&#39;s West Side. It was designed as a pleasure ground by William LeBaron Jenney and is the oldest of the three great original Chicago West Side parks . It is home to the Garfield Park Conservatory, one of the largest conservatories in the United States.</p><br>
<h2>Park history</h2><br>
<p>The first 40 acre segment of Garfield Park was formally opened to the public in August 1874. Originally known as Central Park, it was conceived as the centerpiece of the West Park System.</p><br>
<p>Jenney, now best known as the father of skyscrapers, was influenced by the French parks and boulevards he had seen and studied while living in Paris. That influence is reflected in his design of these Westside parks and the connecting boulevards. The park was renamed in 1881 in honor of slain President James A. Garfield.</p><br>
<p>In 1905, Jens Jensen, now known as the Dean of Prairie-style landscape architecture, was appointed as the superintendent of the West Park System where he experimented with design ideas and improvements to the deteriorated and unfinished sections of Garfield Park. Some of the most notable areas are the existing lawns which became the setting for development of the Prairie style of landscape architecture. His most notable work in Garfield Park can be seen in the formal flower garden south of Madison Street where he combined Prairie style elements with traditional formal elements and in the Conservatory.</p><br>
<p>Garfield Park was initially intended to be used for passive recreation such as strolling and picnicking. Jensen&#39;s expertise as an engineer led him to design a large lagoon as a means of draining the park site while creating the requisite water features. The lagoon was used for boating in summer and ice skating in winter.</p><br>
<p>Jensen&#39;s gardenesque approach to his parks endeared itself to those early park users as one of the first significant attempts at landscape art in Chicago. Throughout its history, Garfield Park has successfully responded to the changing demands placed on a highly used urban open space.</p><br>
<p>During the 1920s, a major addition was incorporated into Garfield Park: a grand, golden domed administration building for the West Park Commission designed by Michaelsen and Rognstad.</p><br>
<p>Following the 1934 consolidation of the separate Chicago parks commissions into the Chicago Park District, the "Golden Dome" became the park&#39;s fieldhouse and center of recreational programs and activities.</p><br>
<p>Despite additions and modifications in both landscape and buildings in Garfield Park, essential character-defining features such as historic roads and paths, buildings, structures, landforms, water features, and some plant materials still exist. Garfield Park remains as one of the best examples of William LeBaron Jenney&#39;s landscape architectural efforts in Chicago, and is a rich tapestry of the contributions of several nationally important designers, architects and artists.</p><br>
<p>Historic features of Garfield Park include architectural landscaping (flower gardens, water court, bridges, lagoons, and the Conservatory); notable architecture (the Golden Dome fieldhouse); the bandshell (or "gazebo" as it is locally known), designed in 1896 by J. L. Silsbee; and the golf shelter building, attributable to prairie school architect Hugh Gardner and built in 1907. There are also a number of historic sculptures and statues within the park.</p><br>
<p>Recreational features include baseball and soccer fields, tennis and basketball courts, a swimming pool, playgrounds and an ice skating rink. The Golden Dome houses an Olympic-sized gymnasium, gymnastic and fitness centers, boxing ring, and theater. Park patrons can participate in programs for everyone from senior citizens to pre-schoolers, including picnicking, outdoor concerts, and community festivals.</p><br>
<h2>Conservatory</h2><br>
<p>The Garfield Park Conservatory, designed by landscape architect Jens Jensen in 1906-07, is a 4.5 acre greenhouse conservatory at the northwest corner of the park.</p><br>
<p>Angkor Thom , located in present-day Cambodia, was the last and most enduring capital city of the Khmer empire. It was established in the late twelfth century by King Jayavarman VII. It covers an area of 9 km², within which are located several monuments from earlier eras as well as those established by Jayavarman and his successors. At the centre of the city is Jayavarman&#39;s state temple, the Bayon, with the other major sites clustered around the Victory Square immediately to the north.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Angkor Thom was established as the capital of Jayavarman VII&#39;s empire, and was the centre of his massive building programme. One inscription found in the city refers to Jayavarman as the groom and the city as his bride.</p><br>
<p>Angkor Thom seems not to be the first Khmer capital on the site, however. Yasodharapura, dating from three centuries earlier, was centred slightly further northwest, and Angkor Thom overlapped parts of it. The most notable earlier temples within the city are the former state temple of Baphuon, and Phimeanakas, which was incorporated into the Royal Palace. The Khmers did not draw any clear distinctions between Angkor Thom and Yashodharapura: even in the fourteenth century an inscription used the earlier name. The name of Angkor Thom—great city—was in use from the 16th century.</p><br>
<p>The last temple known to have been constructed in Angkor Thom was Mangalartha, which was dedicated in 1295. Thereafter the existing structures continued to be modified from time to time, but any new creations were in perishable materials and have not survived.</p><br>
<p>The Ayutthaya Kingdom, led by King Borommarachathirat II, sacked Angkor Thom, forcing the Khmers under Ponhea Yat to relocate their capital southeast.</p><br>
<p>Angkor Thom was abandoned some time prior to 1609, when an early western visitor wrote of an uninhabited city, "as fantastic as the Atlantis of Plato". It is believed to have sustained a population of 80,000–150,000 people.</p><br>
<h2>Style</h2><br>
<p>Angkor Thom is in the Bayon style. This manifests itself in the large scale of the construction, in the widespread use of laterite, in the face-towers at each of the entrances to the city and in the naga-carrying giant figures which accompany each of the towers.</p><br>
<h2>The site</h2><br>
<p>The city lies on the west bank of the Siem Reap River, a tributary of Tonle Sap, about a quarter of a mile from the river. The south gate of Angkor Thom is 7.2 km north of Siem Reap, and 1.7 km north of the entrance to Angkor Wat. The walls, 8 m high and flanked by a moat, are each 3 km long, enclosing an area of 9 km². The walls are of laterite buttressed by earth, with a parapet on the top. There are gates at each of the cardinal points, from which roads lead to the Bayon at the centre of the city. As the Bayon itself has no wall or moat of its own, those of the city are interpreted by archaeologists as representing the mountains and oceans surrounding the Bayon&#39;s Mount Meru. Another gate—the Victory Gate—is 500 m north of the east gate; the Victory Way runs parallel to the east road to the Victory Square and the Royal Palace north of the Bayon.</p><br>
<p>The faces on the 23 m towers at the city gates, which are later additions to the main structure, take after those of the Bayon and pose the same problems of interpretation. They may represent the king himself, the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, guardians of the empire&#39;s cardinal points, or some combination of these. A causeway spans the moat in front of each tower: these have a row of devas on the left and asuras on the right, each row holding a naga in the attitude of a tug-of-war. This appears to be a reference to the myth, popular in Angkor, of the Churning of the Sea of Milk. The temple-mountain of the Bayon, or perhaps the gate itself, The gateways themselves are 3.5 by 7 m, and would originally have been closed with wooden doors. The south gate is now by far the most often visited, as it is the main entrance to the city for tourists.</p><br>
<p>At each corner of the city is a Prasat Chrung—corner shrine—built of sandstone and dedicated to Avalokiteshvara. These are cruciform with a central tower, and orientated towards the east.</p><br>
<p>Within the city was a system of canals, through which water flowed from the northeast to the southwest. The bulk of the land enclosed by the walls would have been occupied by the</p><br>
<p>secular buildings of the city, of which nothing remains. This area is now covered by forest.</p><br>
<p>Most of the great Angkor ruins have vast displays of bas-relief depicting the various gods, goddesses, and other-worldly beings from the mythological stories and epic poems of ancient Hinduism (modified by centuries of Buddhism). Mingled with these images are actual known animals, like elephants, snakes, fish, and monkeys, in addition to dragon-like creatures that look like the stylized, elongated serpents (with feet and claws) found in Chinese art.</p><br>
<p>But among the ruins of Ta Prohm, near a huge stone entrance, one can see that the "roundels on pilasters on the south side of the west entrance are unusual in design."</p><br>
<p>What one sees are roundels depicting various common animals—pigs, monkeys, water buffaloes, roosters and snakes. There are no mythological figures among the roundels, so one can reasonably conclude that these figures depict the animals that were commonly seen by the ancient Khmer people in the twelfth century.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Lara Croft: Tomb Raider features several characters visiting Angkor Thom during their trip to Cambodia to recover the first piece of the Triangle of Light.</p><br>
<p>In James Rollins SIGMA Force Book 4: The Judas Strain (2007), the characters journey to find a cure for a plague, which requires following in the steps of Marco Polo, leads them to the Angkor Thom.</p><br>
<p>In Peter Bourne&#39;s novel The Golden Pagans (c.1956), the main characters are sent to Arabia during the Crusades, captured, and forced into servitude by the Khmers. The prisoners build a portion of what becomes known as Angkor Thom.</p><br>
<p>In Patlabor the Movie 2, the opening scene appears to be based on the Angkor Thom, as said by Hayao Miyazaki in an interview with Animage magazine (October 1993).</p><br>
<p>In Civilization IV: Beyond the Sword, Angkor Thom is the third city built in the Khmer Empire, after Yasodharapura and Hariharalaya.</p><br>
<p>In Eternal Darkness: Sanity&#39;s Requiem, Angkor Thom is the region where a Cambodian temple is located, housing the Ancient Mantorok.</p><br>
<p>Maio  is the easternmost of the Sotavento islands of Cape Verde. Maio is located south of the island of Boa Vista and east of Santiago. The island is known for its sandy beaches and large forest, which is unusual for Cape Verde. Administratively, the island forms one concelho : Maio.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island was named Maio (Portuguese for "May") after its first sighting on May 1, 1460. The island was populated years later.</p><br>
<p>The inconclusive Battle of Maio was fought between British and French frigate squadrons off the island&#39;s southern coast on 23 January 1814 in the last stages of the Napoleonic Wars.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-18th century, salt was mined, the English used Vila do Maio to export its salt from its salt mines of the northwest to England and the Portuguese used Calheta to export its salt from Terras Salgadas to Portugal.</p><br>
<p>USS Yorktown was making its way to visit the nearby island of Santiago and some other African places, it visited Maio on September 4, instead, it sank around the island on September 6 making it one of the first American ships and likely its first sloop to sink in Cape Verdean waters and Maio island. The crew stayed for over a month until October 8 when the USS Dale arrived to pick up the crew and they were transferred to the Portsmouth.</p><br>
<p>Drought and famine like the rest of the country also struck Maio in the late 19th and the early and mid 20th centuries. Maio in its recent decades saw growth that the population is nearly 10,000 today.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island covers an area of 269 km². The tallest mountain on the island (436 m) is on the east coast, in a mountain range named Monte Penoso. Terras Salgadas is a plain filled with salt, in the far north. The northernmost point on the island is Ponta Cais. Bays includes Galeão and Santana to the north and in the southeast is a lagoon named Cimidor. The island’s main town is Cidade do Maio (formerly Vila do Maio), also known as Porto Inglês, near which its airport, Maio Airport lies. Maio are one of six islands that have a surrounding islet or two, it is called Ilhéu Laje Branca. One of the notable beaches include the one west of the island capital, Morro and Praia Gonçalo.</p><br>
<p>Others places are:</p><br>
<p>Alcatraz</p><br>
<p>Barreiro (Len Varela e Banda Riba)</p><br>
<p>Calheta (Maio Creole: Cadjeta)</p><br>
<p>Cascabulho (Maio Creole: Cascabutch)</p><br>
<p>Figueira - (Figueira da Horta e Figueira Seca)</p><br>
<p>Morro</p><br>
<p>Morrinho</p><br>
<p>Pedro Vaz</p><br>
<p>Pilão Cão</p><br>
<p>Praia Gonçalo</p><br>
<p>Ribeira Dom João</p><br>
<p>Santo António</p><br>
<h3>Surrounding the island</h3><br>
<p>The area to the north is predominantly shallow and the depths are down to around 100 meters below sea level in many areas, the highest is the João Valente Reef with a depth of only 16 meters The main Maio Seamount are nearly completely connected to other seamounts due to the shallow north, it connects the João Valente and Boa Vista seamounts to the north. Except for the shallow northern portion, southwest of the island has a depth of 1,000 km around halfway between the island and Santiago, the remainder especially the east over 10-20 km east are waters 3,000 km deep. These are part of the Cape Verde Rise. Surrounding seamounts in the east are Maio (or Lesser Maio, located about 90 km) and Noli seamounts (about 110 km).</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>As of 1832, the population was estimated at 2,500.</p><br>
<p>Most people in Maio are Roman Catholic.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The island prospered around salt collecting in its early days of colonialism, with a little agriculture and grazing.</p><br>
<p>There are two types of agriculture practiced in Maio, rain fed and irrigated. During the raining season products as corn, beans, pumpkins and melons are being cultivated. Products that farmers cultivate year round are sweet potato, cassava, papaya, fig, coconut and tamarind. Goats, cows, pigs, chickens and donkeys are common on the island. Few people own a horse. Scarcity of water is the biggest problem for the locals.</p><br>
<p>Fishery is important and abundant available. Tuna, sailfish and different coral fishes such as the coral hind are caught.</p><br>
<p>The economy is heavily supported by migrants who send money to their family on the island.</p><br>
<p>Tourism is slowly being developed.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Recently the northern part in the area between Morro and Cascabulho and parts of the southeast have become forested. Several forest areas exist on the island.</p><br>
<p>Endangered flora founded on the island include Asparagus squarrosus (Cape Verdean asparagus) and Verbascum capitis-viridis and endangered fauna include Tarentola maioensis.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>Football is by far the most popular sport, but basketball and futsal along with water sports as surfing, diving and swimming are becoming more popular.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Maria Helena da Costa Dias, Cape Verdean born Portuguese writer and translator</p><br>
<p>João Tavares Silva, later emigrated to the United States as a young man and became known as John Tavares Silver, the father of the musician and composer Horace Silver</p><br>
<p>Edy Tavares, baskteball player currently with the Cleveland Cavaliers, center in the NBA, 2.21 m (73") height with 2.3 m (79") wingspan</p><br>
<p>Green Level is an unincorporated community near the town of Cary in southwestern Wake County, North Carolina, United States. It was founded around 1800, and is one of the oldest surviving crossroads communities in the Raleigh area.</p><br>
<p>Although historically connected to the town of Apex, Green Level now lies within the municipal jurisdiction of the rapidly expanding town of Cary. The core of the community has been designated the Green Level Historic District in 2001.</p><br>
<p>One of the central buildings of the community is Green Level Baptist Church, located near the cross-roads of Green Level Church Road and Green Level West Road.</p><br>
<p>One main community building is the Cloer Nursery. Cloer Nursery is located near Green Level Baptist Church at the crossroads of Green Level Church Road and Green Level Road West. The remains of the old convenience store is still standing and being used. It used to be a gas station but when the law making stations switch out old gas tanks, the Phillips 66 closed.</p><br>
<p>The only commercial businesses in the area are Cloer Nusery and the Green Level Gift Shop.</p><br>
<h2>Green Level Historic District</h2><br>
<p>Green Level Historic District is a national historic district located near Cary, Wake County, North Carolina. The districts encompasses 31 contributing buildings, 1 contributing site, and 4 contributing structures in the crossroads community of Green Level. The district developed between about 1890 and 1945, and includes notable examples of Colonial Revival and Gothic Revival, style architecture. Notable buildings include the Green Level Community Store (1945), A. C. and Helon Council House, Green Level Baptist Church (1907), and Alious H. and Daisey Mills Farm and Store (1916).</p><br>
<p>Näsijärvi is a lake 95 m above sea level, in the Pirkanmaa region of southern Finland. Näsijärvi is the biggest lake in the Tampere area at 256 km&sup2; in size. The city of Tampere was built along the Tammerkoski rapids, through which the lake drains into Pyhäjärvi. The water quality of the lake has improved as forest industry has decreased the amount of waste water.</p><br>
<p>There are boat cruising services on Näsijärvi. In 1929, the steamer SS Kuru suffered the most severe Finnish inland shipping disaster on Näsijärvi.</p><br>
<p>During the winter, usually during February and March, the lake is frozen in its entirety. Näsijärvi is then used for Nordic walking, cross-country skiing, and everyday pleasure walking. There is a small, rocky island upon which a lighthouse, called Siilinkari, is located; it is the most popular walking destination on the lake.</p><br>
<p>In the north Näsijärvi has a wide catchment area that includes among others the lakes Ruovesi, Kuorevesi, Keurusselkä, Tarjanne, Pihlajavesi, Toisvesi and Ähtärinjärvi.</p><br>
<p>Pilot Mountain, a metamorphic quartzite monadnock rising to a peak 2,421 ft above sea level, is one of the most distinctive natural features in the USA state of North Carolina. It is a remnant of the ancient chain of Sauratown Mountains. The Saura Indians, the region&#39;s earliest known inhabitants, called the mountain "Jomeokee", meaning "great guide".</p><br>
<p>USA Route 52 passes through the town of Pilot Mountain near the mountain, and the city of Mount Airy is some miles farther north. Pilot Mountain is part of the A.V.A Yadkin Valley, an American Viticultural Area comprising over 50 wineries, including a few wineries in the town of Pilot Mountain.</p><br>
<p>Pilot Mountain has two distinctive features, named Big and Little Pinnacle. Big Pinnacle (also called "The Knob") has high and colorful bare rock walls, with a rounded top covered by vegetation, reaching approximately 1,400 ft above the surrounding terrain. Visitors can take a paved road to the park visitor center and campgrounds, then up to a parking lot on the ridge. Trails from there allow access to the main Little Pinnacle Overlook and other viewing stations.</p><br>
<p>Pilot Mountain is part of Pilot Mountain State Park, which extends to the Yadkin River via a corridor of land, and it is associated with nearby Horne Creek Living Historical Farm. The curved depression between the ridge slope to the Little Pinnacle and then to the round knob of the Big Pinnacle gives the entire mountain an even more distinctive shape from a distance. Other interesting rock formations are to the east at privately held Sauratown Mountain, and the higher complex at Hanging Rock State Park.</p><br>
<h2>Trails</h2><br>
<p>The Jomeokee Trail leads around the base of Big Pinnacle. The Ledge Spring Trail goes past a large picnic area and down along the ridge crest; its lower loop back up past a small perennial spring follows a long cliff that is a popular location for rock climbing. Big Pinnacle is closed to climbing. Other trails include Sassafras trail, and Grindstone Trail which connects the popular campground to Ledge Spring Trail. Mountain Trail follows up the other side of the ridge to also connect to Ledge Spring Trail. The Grassy Ridge Trail follows along the mountains base, connecting the lower ends of the Mountain and Grindstone Trails together. The Grassy Ridge Trail also connects to the Corridor Trail, which goes to the parks river section, and it connects to the Mountains-to-Sea and Sauratown Trails, which go to Hanging Rock State Park.</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>Kabir Kuh  is one of the long ranges of the Zagros Mountains near the border of Lurestan and Ilam Provinces in Ilam province, Iran. Covering an area of 9,500 km&sup2, Kabir Kuh stretches 175 km in length and 48-80 km in width along the Zagros Mountains in the Northwest-Southeast direction. It begins about 20 km south of Ilam and stretches down to the vicinity of Andimeshk in Khuzestan. Made mainly by Cretaceous sedimentary rocks, the Kabir Kuh range consists of a large number of mountains, including Shah Ahmad, Tabriz, Kaleh-bad, Filman, Damaghey-e Anar, Rivasan, Puneh, Sabzkhani, Zarrin, Golgol that are covered by snow and ice all year round. Its highest peak is Kan Seifi with 3,050 m elevation, 50 km south of Ilam. Kabir Kuh runs along the Seymareh river, which becomes Karkheh when joins the Kashkan river before reaching the border of Ilam province and Khuzestan province. Kabir Kuh divides the mountainous region in western Iran into two regions generally referred as Piškuh  and Poštkuh , the latter virtually coinciding with Ilam.</p><br>
<p>The eastern side is dominated by steep slopes where water and wooded valleys abound. The western side is, however, quite dry but rich in oil reservoirs and underground resources.</p><br>
<p>Chogolisa  is a mountain in the Karakoram region of Pakistan. It lies near the Baltoro Glacier in the Concordia region which is home to some of the highest peaks of the world. Chogolisa has several peaks, the highest on the SW face  rises to 7,668 m. The second highest at 7,654 metres on the NE side  is the one named Bride Peak by Martin Conway in 1892.</p><br>
<p>In 1909, a party led by Duke of the Abruzzi reached 7,498 m from a base camp located on the northern side and a high camp on the Chogolisa saddle at 6,335m. Bad weather stopped the party from ascending further, but their climb established a world altitude record.</p><br>
<p>Hermann Buhl and Kurt Diemberger attempted Chogolisa in 1957 after they had successfully summitted Broad Peak behind Marcus Schmuck and Fritz Wintersteller a few weeks earlier. On June 25 they left camp I and camped in a saddle at 6,706m on the SE ridge. On June 27 a sudden snow storm forced them to retreat and on the descent, Buhl broke off a big cornice and fell into the mountain&#39;s near vertical north face. His body has never been found.</p><br>
<p>In 1958, a Japanese expedition from Kyoto University led by Takeo Kuwabara (桑原武夫) made the first ascent of Chogolisa II, placing M. Fujihira and K. Hirai on top.</p><br>
<p>The first ascent of Chogolisa I was made on August 2, 1975 by Fred Pressl and Gustav Ammerer of an Austrian expedition led by Eduard Koblmueller. Koblmueller almost suffered the same fate as Buhl, as he also fell through a cornice on the ascent; fortunately, he was roped and team members were able to pull him to safety.</p><br>
<p>The Mátra is a mountain range in northern Hungary, between the towns Gyöngyös and Eger. The country&#39;s highest peak, Kékestető , belongs to this mountain range.</p><br>
<p>The Mátra (Slovak: Matra) is part of the North Hungarian Mountains and belongs by origin to the largest young volcanic zone of Europe. It is situated between the valleys of River Tarna and River Zagyva. The Mátra can be divided into several readily distinguishable parts. The highest point of the Western Mátra is Muzsla (805 m). The Central Mátra consists of the plateau of Mátrabérc (Mátra ridge) and the groups of the volcanic cones of Galyatető and Kékestető. Steep, rugged slopes, screes, talus slopes and slides alternate with one another, covered with closed beech forests. Gentler slopes and parallel valleys flow down to the south, the largest of which is the so-called Nagy-völgy (Great Valley). The &#39;main entrance&#39; to the Mátra was formed in parallel with the valley of Nagy-patak (Great Stream), ranging from Mátrafüred to Mátraháza. From the vineyard-covered landscape of the foot of the Mátra travellers can arrive at the wooded mountains in a flash. To the east, after the steep escarpment of the 898-metre-high Saskő (Eagle Stone), the 650-750-metre-high peaks of the Eastern Mátra follow one another. The northern part of the mountain range is called Mátralába (the Mátra&#39;s feet). This is a hilly area covered with 250-400-metre-high small volcanic cones, with mostly cultivated arable lands.</p><br>
<h2>Regional structure</h2><br>
<h3>Cities/towns</h3><br>
<p>* Gyöngyös (including Mátrafüred)</p><br>
<p>* Pásztó</p><br>
<p>* Pétervására</p><br>
<p>* Bátonyterenye</p><br>
<p>The Foshay Tower, now the W Minneapolis – The Foshay hotel, is a skyscraper in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Modeled after the Washington Monument, the building was completed in 1929, months before the stock market crash in October of that year. It has 32 floors and stands 447 ft high, plus an antenna mast that extends the total height of the structure to 607 ft. The building, which was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, is an example of Art Deco architecture. Its address is 821 Marquette Avenue, although it is set well back from the street and is actually closer to 9th Street than Marquette.</p><br>
<h2>Early skyscraper</h2><br>
<p>The Foshay Tower marked a significant landmark locally in the push skyward, as the tower was the first in the city to surpass the height of Minneapolis City Hall, completed in 1906. It remained the tallest building in Minneapolis until the IDS Center surpassed it in 1972.</p><br>
<h2>Structure and interior</h2><br>
<p>As the building was designed to echo the Washington Monument, the sides of the building slope slightly inward, and each floor of the Foshay Tower is slightly smaller than the one below it. It is also unusual in that the tower is set back from the street, with a two-story structure surrounding it on the Marquette Avenue and 9th Street sides. The other two sides of the building, facing 8th Street and 2nd Avenue, are now surrounded by the TCF Tower, which rises to seventeen stories on the 2nd Avenue side and entirely obscures the views from the windows of the first seven stories of the Foshay Tower on the 2nd Avenue and 8th Street sides. Internally the building uses steel and reinforced concrete. The exterior is faced with Indiana limestone, while the interior features African Mahogany, Italian marble, terrazzo, gold-plated doorknobs, a silver and gold plated ceiling, ornamental bronze, hand wrought iron and three commissioned busts of George Washington. It cost US$3.75 million to build. From the Marquette Avenue side of the structure, the name, "Foshay," is visible in concrete four times on the exterior of the building (once on the top and three times on the street level).</p><br>
<h2>Dedication</h2><br>
<p>Foshay Tower was the lifelong dream and namesake of Wilbur Foshay, an art student turned businessman who amassed his fortune by building up three utility company empires (operating as the W. B. Foshay Company). At the time the tower was being built, he had sold his previous two empires in turn and was building up his third (which was eventually to stretch from Alaska to Nicaragua). He planned to locate his business and residence on the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth floors where a three-bedroom, three-bath suite was built, with a fireplace and library, Italian Siena marble walls and glass-paneled ceilings.</p><br>
<p>Foshay invited 25,000 guests to the dedication ceremony and provided all-expenses paid trips to many who included cabinet members, senators and congressmen. Half-nude dancers entertained. Each guest received a gold pocketwatch. The military gave 19-gun salutes. John Philip Sousa conducted music, including the "Foshay Tower–Washington Memorial March," a march he wrote for the occasion. Foshay presented Sousa with a check for US$20,000.</p><br>
<p>The march was only played once during Foshays lifetime. Six weeks after the buildings opening on November 2, 1929, Foshays corporate empire was thrown into receivership at the onset of the Great Depression. Ignominiously, Foshays check to Sousa bounced, and in retaliation, Sousa prohibited the playing of the march so long as Foshays debt to him remained outstanding. Foshay never lived in his new home, which also went into receivership. It wasnt until 1988 when a group of Minnesota investors repaid Foshays debt to Sousas estate that the march was permitted to be played in public again.</p><br>
<h2>Magney & Tusler</h2><br>
<p>The Foshay was designed by Léon Eugène Arnal (1881-1963), chief designer for the architects Magney & Tusler, later known as Setter, Leach & Lindstrom, which was acquired by Leo A. Daly in 2003.</p><br>
<p>The building has the name "FOSHAY" in 10 foot (3 m) lighted letters on all four sides just below the top. A USA patent for this display technique was filed in 1929 by Gottlieb R. Magney, Wilbur Tusler and Arnal and granted in 1931, assigned to the W. B. Foshay Co.</p><br>
<h2>Later use</h2><br>
<p>In January 1981, the building was wrapped in a huge yellow ribbon during the final days of the Iran hostage crisis. Once the hostages returned to the United States, the ribbon was moved to the Minnesota State Capitol in Saint Paul so that people could sign it. The ribbon is now in the Minnesota Historical Society.</p><br>
<p>The antenna on the roof has been used by various broadcasters, including television stations WTCN (a predecessor to modern-day KARE), WCCO and KMSP. Radio station KFAI has been broadcasting from the tower since 1984, but moved their transmission tower to the IDS Center in March 2007, due to the W Hotel renovation. Around 1980, when the Foshay was still one of the tallest buildings in Minneapolis, the pyramidal top was covered with numerous pieces of radio transmitting equipment.</p><br>
<p>The structures street level establishments once included Cafe Un Deux Trois, notable for having Andrew Zimmern as Executive Chef for its first 4-years, and Peters Grill, Minneapolis&#39;s oldest restaurant.</p><br>
<p>The Norwegian consulate was located in the tower until 2007, when it moved to the AT&T Tower across the street.</p><br>
<h2>Conversion to W Hotel</h2><br>
<p>On September 4, 2006, it was reported that developers Ralph W. Burnet and Minneapolis-based Ryan Companies would spend as much as $90 million to convert the 32-story office tower into a 230-room W Hotel, part of Starwood Hotels & Resorts Worldwide. All tenants with the exception of Keys Café on the first floor moved out.</p><br>
<p>A unique finding occurred at the tower when workers were replacing the ceiling in the hotels lobby. When the lobby ceiling was removed, they discovered the rooms original ceiling, complete with intricate engravings and embossed with various logos. However, due to past renovation work and age, the ceiling had deteriorated and was badly damaged. It has been reported that workers are currently in the process of restoring the original ceiling at the behest of the National Register of Historic Places, a process which will take a total of four months alone.</p><br>
<p>The renovated W Minneapolis - The Foshay opened on August 13, 2008. The hotel retains the 30th floor observation deck and converted Wilbur Foshay&#39;s former boardroom on the 27th floor into the Prohibition Sky Bar.</p><br>
<p>The Rothko Chapel is a non-denominational chapel in Houston, Texas, founded by John and Dominique de Menil. The interior serves not only as a chapel, but also as a major work of modern art. On its walls are fourteen black but color hued paintings by Mark Rothko. The shape of the building, an octagon inscribed in a Greek cross, and the design of the chapel was largely influenced by the artist. The chapel sits two miles southwest of downtown in a suburban neighborhood situated between the building housing the Menil Collection and the Chapel of Saint Basil on the campus of the University of Saint Thomas.</p><br>
<p>Susan J. Barnes states "The Rothko Chapel...became the world&#39;s first broadly ecumenical center, a holy place open to all religions and belonging to none. It became a center for international cultural, religious, and philosophical exchanges, for colloquia and performances. And it became a place of private prayer for individuals of all faiths" Quote on p. 108, reprinted in the NRHP Nomination form.</p><br>
<p>On September 16, 2000, the Rothko Chapel was placed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1964 Rothko was commissioned by John and Dominique de Menil (also founders of the nearby Menil Collection) to create a meditative space filled with his paintings. The works are site-specific, one of the requirements of the program. As Rothko was given creative license on the design of the structure, he clashed with the projects original architect, Philip Johnson over the plans for the chapel. The plans went through several revisions and architects. Rothko continued to work first with Howard Barnstone and then with Eugene Aubry, but ultimately he did not live to see the chapels completion in 1971. After a long struggle with depression, Rothko committed suicide in his New York studio on February 25, 1970.</p><br>
<p>From 1973 onward, the Rothko Chapel doubled as a center for colloquiums aimed at fostering mutual understanding on issues affecting justice and freedom throughout the world. The first colloquium drew scholars from Lebanon, Iran, India, Pakistan, Nigeria, Japan, Italy, the United States and Canada. In 1981, it initiated “The Rothko Chapel Awards to Commitment to Truth and Freedom." In 1986, a second award was established to honor and emulate the spirit of Oscar Romero, Archbishop of San Salvador, who was murdered on March 24, 1980. These Rothko Chapel Awards have recognized individuals and organizations who, at great risk, denounce violations of human rights. In 1991 the Rothko Chapel marked its 20th anniversary with a joint award with the Carter-Menil Human Rights Foundation, founded in 1986 with former President Jimmy Carter. Nelson Mandela was the keynote speaker and received the special Rothko Chapel award.</p><br>
<p>In early 1999 the Rothko Chapel closed for a major renovation. The paintings had been exhibiting premature signs of age, and the largest could not be removed for treatment. In 2000, the chapel reopened after an 18-month, $1.8 million renovation, with the artist&#39;s paintings newly restored.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The chapel is an irregular octagonal brick building with gray or rose stucco walls and a baffled skylight. It serves as a place of meditation as well as a meeting hall and is furnished with eight simple, moveable benches for meditative seating; more are provided to accommodate the audience for special events. Holy books from several religions are available. About 55,000 people visit the chapel each year.</p><br>
<h2>Works of art</h2><br>
<p>The chapel is associated with several works of art other than the building itself, in the fields of painting, sculpture, and music.</p><br>
<h3>Paintings</h3><br>
<p>Fourteen of Rothko&#39;s paintings are displayed in the chapel. Three walls display triptychs, while the other five walls display single paintings. Beginning in 1964, Rothko began painting a series of black paintings, which incorporated other dark hues and texture effects. A typical question raised by visitors viewing the massive black canvases which adorn the walls of the chapel includes some variant of: "Where are the paintings?"</p><br>
<p>The de Menils offered Rothko a commission for the chapel in 1964. From the fall of 1964 through the spring of 1967, he painted the fourteen large paintings and four alternates, which incorporated many of the characteristics of the earlier 1964 black paintings.</p><br>
<h3>Sculpture</h3><br>
<p>A distinctive sculpture by Barnett Newman, Broken Obelisk, 1963–1967, stands in front of the chapel. The sculpture sits in a reflecting pool designed by Philip Johnson and it is dedicated to the late Martin Luther King, Jr. The sculpture originally stood in Washington, D.C. and was offered in 1969 by the de Menils to the city of Houston as a memorial to Martin Luther King, Jr. to stand in front of City Hall. Houston turned down the gift and the de Menils then donated the sculpture and the Rothko paintings to start the Rothko Chapel.</p><br>
<h3>Music</h3><br>
<p>One of Morton Feldman&#39;s best known pieces of music was inspired by and written to be performed in the chapel — it too is called Rothko Chapel (1971). The musician Peter Gabriel named one of his songs "Fourteen Black Paintings" after his experience in the chapel.</p><br>
<h2>Recognition</h2><br>
<p>The Chapel has received numerous awards, including the Peace Award from The Houston Baha’í Community (1998), a Community Award from the Museum District Business Alliance (2000), The James L. Tucker Interfaith Award from Interfaith Ministries (2004), an Urban Greenery Award from The Park People (2005), and recognitions from the Houston Peace and Justice Center (2008).</p><br>
<p>The Fort Wayne Old City Hall Building in downtown Fort Wayne, Indiana operates as a museum known as The History Center, and has served as headquarters for the Allen County–Fort Wayne Historical Society since 1980. The Richardsonian Romanesque style sandstone building was designed by the noted architectural firm Wing & Mahurin and built in 1893. It served as a functioning city hall for the city until 1971 when local officials moved to the City-County Building.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973.</p><br>
<p>The History Center has collected 27,000 artifacts in permanent displays dedicated to the region&#39;s history, dating from the Ice Age to the 18th century to present.</p><br>
<p>The Society also owns the National Historic Landmark Chief Jean Baptiste de Richardville House.</p><br>
<h2>Exhibits</h2><br>
<p>Earliest Inhabitants, tools, weapons, a mastodon&#39;s broken rib bone and large tooth are displayed.</p><br>
<p>Miami Indian History, images of Pacanne, Little Turtle, and Jean Baptiste de Richardville displayed, along with collections on the Miami Indian capital, Kekionga. Miami chief Little Turtle&#39;s items displayed include his watch and sword presented to him by President George Washington. Exhibit also includes a model of a typical 18th-century Miami village.</p><br>
<p>Anthony Wayne, exhibits the birth of Fort Wayne with General "Mad" Anthony Wayne&#39;s ordering of a fort to be built at the three rivers, October 22, 1794.</p><br>
<p>An Emerging City, includes a model of and parts of the Wabash and Erie Canal, attributed to turning the city into a boom-town in the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>Industry, includes a recreation of a blacksmith shop, as well as noting Fort Wayne resident Sylvanus Bowser, creator of the self-measuring gasoline pump.</p><br>
<p>Allen County Innovation, a new gallery opened in 2012, features a number of the products that were created and produced by entrepreneurs in Fort Wayne and Allen County.</p><br>
